1
Q
What factors must be considered when assessing the use of evidence?
A
- Precise relevance to reason
- Sufficiency to support claim
- Selective use of evidence
- Averages -> Representative of whole group?
- Alternative explanations
2
Q
In what way must evidence be relevant to the reason it is supporting?
A
- Timescale
- Group of people
- Geographic area
3
Q
Assess the use of evidence:
“In 2005, Detroit police used undercover surveillance and informants to fight organised criminals, and reduced crime by 72%. This shows that the British government doesn’t need to invest more money in police weaponry - guns are not the only way to tackle violent criminals.”
A
1) Evidence is about Detroit, but it’s used to support a claim about British police -> Not precisely relevant -> British police might have different skills, etc.
2) Evidence is about organised criminals, but it’s used to support a claim about violent criminals -> Not precisely relevant -> Techniques for dealing with organised criminals may not work for violent criminals
4
Q
What makes evidence relevant?
A
It has to be about exactly the same thing as the reason.
5
Q
How does relevance of evidence affect the strength with which the evidence is used?
A
- Not precisely relevant -> Weakness
* Relevant in any way -> Strenghtens
6
Q
Why must evidence be sufficient to support a claim?
A
A reason has to be fully supported by evidence in order to be strong.
7
Q
Assess this use of evidence:
“We Know Cyprus will be a great place for a holiday - it gets 326 days of sun a year.”
A
- Insufficient evidence -> Weak
- Lots of sun may be relevant to having a great holiday, but it’s not enough on its own
- We need evidence about other factors
8
Q
What is selective use of evidence?
A
When certain information is withheld in supporting a reason.
9
Q
Assess the use of evidence:
“Many smokers use cigarettes to relieve stress - and with good reason. A scientific analysis of tobacco found that it causes the brain to release hormones that make you feel more relaxed. Stress is bad for your health, so this proves that cigarettes are good for your health.”
A
- Selective use of evidence
- Evidence about the dangers of smoking, such as cancer, are withheld
- This would prove that smoking is not completely good for your health
10
Q
Why is selective use of evidence / insufficient evidence a weakness?
A
- The reason won’t be fully supported
* Strong use of evidence requires all the information needed for us to accept that the reason’s true
11
Q
What’s the difference between insufficient evidence and selective use of evidence?
A
- Insufficient -> The evidence provided is not enough to fully support the reason.
- Selective use of evidence -> There is other evidence that could prove the opposite and weaken the reason
12
Q
How may averages not be representative of a whole group?
A
- There are different types of average -> Can be manipulated
* Also, averages only give a rough idea of a whole group -> May not be strong enough to offer support for a reason
13
Q
Assess the use of evidence:
“Kathryn is an excellent instructor. The average time it takes her to teach someone to drive is 67 hours, so there’s no need to budget for more than 80 hours’ worth of lessons.”
A
- Average is not representative of the whole group
* For some people it may take far longer than 67 hours to drive, so they may need to budget for more than 80 hours
14
Q
How do you evaluate evidence from a graph or table?
A
- Just like with normal evidence
* Check that it is relevant, sufficient and representative
15
Q
Remember to revise assessing evidence from a graph or table.
A
Pg 43 of revision guide
16
Q
What is the effect of alternative interpretations of evidence?
A
If you can offer an alternative explanation for a piece of evidence, it weakens the author’s claim
17
Q
Assess the use of evidence:
“Newly qualified drivers aged 17-20 are twice as likely to have a crash as more experienced drivers. This shows that the practical driving test is too easy.”
A
- There are alternative explanations for this evidence
- e.g. Young drivers may be more immature and likely to take risks
- This weakens the use of evidence
18
Q
What two types of question might you get about evidence?
A
1) Multiple-choice deciding which piece of evidence most strengthens or weakens an argument
2) Explain one strength or weakness in the use of evidence
19
Q
When answering questions about strengths or weaknesses in the use of evidence, what is it important to do?
A
- Don’t just state the strength or weakness.
- Explain how the use of evidence connects to the reasoning.
Bad:
“The evidence is weak because the survey only covers office workers.”
Good:
“The evidence is weak because it only covers office workers and cannot be applied more generally to all work environments such as hospitals or schools, so it doesn’t support the claim that tea needs to be banned in all workplaces.”
20
Q
Can examples on their own be used to support conclusions?
A
No, they can make reasons more convincing, but they can’t support the conclusion without the reason.
21
Q
Why are examples used?
A
To make reasons more convincing.
22
Q
What must you do when asked to assess the use of examples in an argument?
A
- Check to see if the example supports a reason -> On its own, the example is weak
- Check the example is relevant -> Same situation as in the reason + typical of the group
23
Q
Evaluate the use of examples:
“Our bulldog is wonderful with children - he lets them pull his tail and play with him and is very patient with them. Clearly bulldogs are the perfect family dog.”
A
- Only example supports the conclusion, no reasons -> Weak
* The example is only about one dog, so there’s not enough reasons to accept a general conclusion about all bulldogs
24
Q
What things make an example relevant?
A
- Precisely the same situation as the reason -> Timescale, Area, People
- Typical of the group being discussed -> i.e. Not a exception
25
Evaluate the use of examples:
“Exercising isn’t a good way to lose weight. When Matt Hegarty was training for a marathon, he was exercising for at least 2 hours a day every day - and he put on weight.”
* Example isn’t relevant.
| * The reason is about people wanting to lose weight, but Matt was exercising for a marathon, not to lose weight.
26
Evaluate the use of examples:
“Horror films often have serious effects on people’s mental health. Last year, a young man attacked and murdered an innocent passer-by just hours after watching Screwdriver II at the cinema.”
* Example is an exception -> Not relevant.
| * One man’s extreme actions aren’t representative of the large group of people who watch horror films.
27
Is it bad is an example illustrates an exception?
Usually yes. But not if they support a claim that states that *sometimes* something can happen.
28
Evaluate the use of evidence:
“Doing exercise isn’t always good for you. Runners can damage their joints because it’s a high impact sport, and snow-boarders frequently break bones. So always check with your doctor before starting a new exercise regime.”
* Example is relevant, even though it illustrates an exception.
* Because it supports the claim that *sometimes* exercise can be bad for you.
29
When assessing the use of general principles, what factors must you consider?
* Relevance
* Principle that applies in many situations
* Relative strength of opposing principles
30
In what way must a general principle be relevant?
The principle must be proved to be relevant to the conclusion, usually by other reasons that show it to be true in this situation.
31
Assess the use of general principles:
“The government shouldn’t allow people to inflict prolonged suffering on animals. Fox-hunting forces a loving creature to run for its life, before being savagely killed. The hunt often takes hours, and causes the fox a lot of suffering. Therefore, banning fox-hunting is the right action to take.”
* The principle about animal suffering is show to be true in the case of fox hunting -> This makes it relevant
* This is strong
32
How does the number of situations a general principle applies in affect its strength?
The more situations a general principle applies in, the stronger it is.
33
When might a good principle not give strong support to an argument?
When it is overpowered by a stronger, opposing principle.
34
What must you do when two principles clash?
Decide which is stronger.
35
Assess the use of general principles:
“The government shouldn’t allow people to inflict prolonged suffering in animals. Medical research on animals often involves dissection without anaesthetic, and other experiments they subject the animals to a great deal of suffering. Therefore, banning medical research that causes animals suffering is the right action to take.”
* The principle about animal suffering is relevant and applies in many situations.
* BUT its use is weak because it is overpowered by the stronger principle that “we must protect humans from disease and suffering”.
* So its use is weak.
36
What is strong hypothetical reasoning?
A credible claim that gives a good reason for accepting the conclusion.
37
What is weak hypothetical reasoning?
An unlikely or unbelievable claim, or one that isn’t relevant to the conclusion.
38
When assessing the use of hypothetical reasoning, what factors must be considered?
* Is it true that one event will happen as the result of the other?
* Is the condition possible or likely to happen?
* Does the reasoning support the conclusion?
* Does the claim offer some support to the conclusion, but need more information to strengthen that support?
39
Assess the use of hypothetical reasoning:
“If I explain that I had a date with my boyfriend, then my teacher won’t mind that I haven’t done my homework. Therefore, I won’t do my homework.”
* The condition (“explaining I had a date with my boyfriend”) is very unlikely to lead to the consequence (“my teacher won’t mind”).
* So this hypothetical reasoning can’t support the conclusion.
40
Assess the use of hypothetical reasoning:
“If aliens invaded tomorrow, then no one would notice I hadn’t done my homework. Therefore, I won’t do my homework.”
* It’s unlikely that aliens will invade -> So the condition is unlikely
* Therefore the hypothetical reasoning can’t support the conclusion
41
Assess the use of hypothetical reasoning:
“If I’m really nice to my teacher then I might not get in trouble for not doing my homework. Therefore, I don’t need to do my homework.”
* The reasoning is indefinite (“I *might* not get into trouble”), so it can’t support the definite conclusion (“I don’t need to do it”).
* Therefore this is weak.
42
Assess the use of hypothetical reasoning:
“If I want to do well at school, then I need to change my homework habits. Therefore, I should start going to Jenny’s house when I have homework to do.”
* The reasoning gives some support to the conclusion.
| * BUT the argument needs more information to strengthen it (e.g. “Jenny is hard-working and will be a good influence).
43
What must you do when asked to evaluate the use of an analogy?
1) Identify what is being compared and what the conclusion is
2) Weigh up similarities and differences
3) Explain how the analogy links to the conclusion and why it’s strong or weak
(If asked for two points of evaluation, make sure each point discusses a different aspect of the analogy)
44
Do analogies always state their conclusion?
Not always explicitly
45
What two things are being compared in this analogy:
“Fast food is addictive and can cause significant health problems, such as obesity, which might lead to low self-esteem and other social problems. You may as well give your child a hit of heroin along with their burger, chips and fizzy drink.”
The harmful and addictive effects of fast food are compared to those of heroin.
46
What conclusion is being drawn from this analogy:
“Fast food is addictive and can cause significant health problems, such as obesity, which might lead to low self-esteem and other social problems. You may as well give your child a hit of heroin along with their burger, chips and fizzy drink.”
You wouldn’t give your child heroin, therefore you shouldn’t give your child fast food.
47
When evaluating the similarities and differences in an analogy, what must you remember?
Only discuss similarities and differences that are directly relevant to the conclusion.
48
Analyse the similarities and differences between the situations being compared in the analogy:
“Fast food is addictive and can cause significant health problems, such as obesity, which might lead to low self-esteem and other social problems. You may as well give your child a hit of heroin along with their burger, chips and fizzy drink.”
* Similarity -> Heroin and fast food both cause addiction and health problems, which parents wouldn’t want their children to have.
* Difference -> Heroin is illegal, junk food is not.
* Difference -> Heroin has more health risks, such as contaminated needles, than fast food.
49
When evaluating the use of analogies, what is it important to remember?
Explain how the similarity/difference *links* to the conclusion specifically.
50
When evaluating the use of analogies and asked to make two points of evaluation, what must you do?
Ensure that each point discusses a different aspect of the analogy.
51
What is the difference between reasons and explanations?
* Reasons try to persuade us of a conclusion that isn’t necessarily accepted true.
* Explanations describe why something is the way it is, to help us understand it better. The final statement is already accepted as true.
52
How do some arguments use explanations?
To support conclusions.
| See pg 49 of revision guide
53
Break this argument down into parts:
“He got soaked because he forgot to check the weather forecast and didn’t bring an umbrella. If he doesn’t want it to happen again, he needs to be better prepared.”
* “He got soaked” -> Statement accepted as true
* “he forgot to check the weather forecast and didn’t bring an umbrella.” -> Explanation
* “If he doesn’t want it to happen again he needs to be better prepared.” -> Conclusion
54
When asked to provide an alternative explanation, what must you remember?
* Explanation must be different from those in the text
| * Explanation needs a good description of that clearly shows how the cause leads on to the final effect.
55
What is a flaw?
A mistake in the reasoning used to link an argument’s reasons to its conclusion.
56
What is the effect of a flaw?
* Flaws weaken an argument
| * We can’t accept the conclusion
57
How many flaws do you need to know about?
15
58
What are the 15 flaws?
* Unrelated conclusion
* Conflation
* Confusing necessary and sufficient conditions
* Slippery slope
* Circular argument
* Begging the question
* Tu quoque
* Two wrongs don’t make a right
* Hasty + Sweeping generalisation
* Straw person
* Ad hominem
* Restricting the options
* Post hoc
* Simplifying causal relations
* Confusing cause and effect
59
What is an unrelated conclusions?
When an argument’s reasons and conclusions aren’t relevant to one another.
60
What makes an unrelated conclusion difficult to notice?
The unrelated conclusion may appear relates because it’s on the same general topic as the reasons, but they might not be about the same aspect of that topic.
61
What is conflation?
Using two different words as if they mean exactly the same thing.
62
What makes conflation difficult to notice?
Two words may have a similar meaning, but if they are to be used synonymously, they must mean exactly the same thing.
63
What is confusing necessary and sufficient conditions?
When an argument uses a necessary condition as if it is sufficient, or vice versa.
64
What is a necessary and sufficient condition?
* Necessary -> Must happen or be true for something else to happen (but not sufficient)
* Sufficient -> Something that is enough for something to happen (but not necessary)
65
What is a slippery slope?
When the reasoning claims that one small event will cause an extreme result, but gives no reason to accept that the first event and final result are logically linked.
66
What is a circular argument?
* When one of the reasons is saying the same thing as the conclusion.
* Because the reason and conclusion are the same, there’s nothing to persuade us to believe the conclusion, so we can’t accept it.
67
Why is circular argument a flaw?
Because the reason and conclusion are the same, there’s nothing to persuade us to believe the conclusion, so we can’t accept it.
68
What is begging the question?
* A specific type of circular argument.
* When you have to accept the conclusion before you can accept the reason.
* This is flawed because accepting the conclusion before the reasons is the exact opposite of what is supposed to happen in an argument.
69
Why is begging the question a flaw?
Accepting the conclusion before the reasons is the exact opposite of what is supposed to happen in an argument.
70
What is the difference between a circular argument and begging the question?
* Circular argument -> Reason is *exactly the same* as conclusion
* Begging the question -> Must accept the conclusion before reason -> Reason and conclusion not necessarily the same
71
What is Tu Quoque?
* Defending an action by reasoning that the same action has been done by others.
* i.e. “I’ll do something because someone else does it too”
72
Why is Tu Quoque flawed?
The actions might be immoral or harmful (or nice), but it’s always flawed to argue that you should do something *just* because someone else is doing it.
73
What is “two wrongs don’t make a right”?
Justifying a harmful action by saying that it’s acceptable because other people have behaved badly in a different way.
74
Why is “two wrongs don’t make a right” flawed?
Someone doing something wrong is not a reason for you to do something else that’s wrong.
75
What is the difference between Tu Quoque and “two wrongs don’t make a right”?
* Tu Quoque -> Justifies action by saying that the *same* action has been done by others
* “Two wrongs don’t make a right” -> Justifies action by saying that others have done *different* bad things
76
What is the catch-all term for Tu Quoque and “two wrongs don’t make a right”?
Reasoning from wrong actions
77
What are the two types of generalisation?
* Hasty
| * Sweeping
78
How do generalisation work?
* Use information about *part* of a group
| * Make claims about the whole of that group OR one individual in it
79
What is a hasty generalisation?
When a claim about a few things is used to support a conclusion about everything (or lots of things).
80
What is a sweeping generalisation?
When a claim about many things is used to support a conclusion about one individual case.
81
Why is hasty generalisation a flaw?
* The conclusion about many things is based on Insufficient evidence.
* A claim about one or two cases is too specific to tell us anything reliable about the entire group.
82
Why is sweeping generalisation a flaw?
Just because something is often true or generally the case in a group, it isn’t sufficient evidence to tell us anything definite about one specific case.
83
When asked to explain why a generalisation is flawed, what must you do?
* Explain how the generalisation might not apply in that case.
* Don’t just state a possible exception.
84
What is the difference between hasty generalisation and an example?
* Hasty generalisation -> Use specific examples to support a general conclusion
* Examples -> Can be used to illustrate reasons
85
What is a straw person flaw?
* Occurs when dismissing a counter-argument
| * The counter-argument is misrepresented or distorted to make it easier to dismiss
86
Why is straw person a flaw?
The argument focuses on dismissing an irrelevant part of the counter-argument or attacks a counter-argument that doesn’t exist. This means it isn’t properly dismissed.
87
What is ad hominem?
When an argument tries to dismiss a counter-argument by attacking a person, rather than their argument.
88
Why is ad hominem a flaw?
* It doesn’t give any reason to dismiss the counter-argument.
* An argument could be strong and valid -> It doesn’t matter who’s making it is like
89
Does ad hominem only involve attacking people?
No, it can also be used to persuade you to accept an argument because the person arguing is nice.
90
What is restricting the options?
When a conclusion is presented as the best option by only discussing a limited range of choices.
91
Why is restricting the options a flaw?
There may be more appealing alternatives that the argument doesn’t mention or offer any reasons to dismiss, so you can’t be persuaded to accept the conclusion.
92
What is a good way to show that restricting the options is a flaw?
Give some other possibilities that the argument ignores.
93
What is a causal relation?
When one event was caused by another.
94
What are the three ways in which a causal relation may be confused?
* Post Hoc
* Simplifying causal relations
* Confusing cause and effect
95
What is Post Hoc?
When it is argued that event A caused event B, just because A happened before B.
96
If event B happened after event A, and A caused B, is a Post Hoc flaw possible?
* Yes, if insufficient evidence is given to persuade us that event A caused B then it is still post hoc.
* More information is needed.
97
What is another name for restricting the options?
False dichotomy
98
What is another name for an unrelated conclusion?
Arguing from one thing to another.
99
What is another name for Post Hoc?
False cause
100
What is simplifying causal relations?
EITHER:
• Claiming one thing was entirely responsible for another event, when there were actually several factors combined to cause the result.
OR
• Claiming that event A caused event B, when they were both actually caused by event C
101
What is confusing cause and effect?
When an argument assumes that event A caused B, when in fact event B caused A.
102
What are hasty and sweeping generalisation known as together?
Unwarranted generalisation
103
How many ways of simplifying causal relations are there?
2
104
What are the 3 types of flaw question that you might get?
1) Multiple-choice name the flaw
2) Recognise a flaw from a text and explain why it’s flawed
3) Evaluate the reasoning in an argument - considering flaw, examples, evidence and other argument elements
105
When asked to identify a flaw and explain why it is a flaw, what must you do?
Explain why the reasoning is flawed and relate this to the specific case in the text.
106
What is an appeal?
When an argument uses emotional persuasion instead of reasons to convince you that a conclusion is true.
107
What are the 5 types of appeal?
* Emotion
* Authority
* Tradition
* History
* Popularity
108
Why are weak appeals a flaw?
They don’t support the conclusion they convince you of.
109
What are other names for weak appeals?
* Irrelevant appeals
| * Inappropriate appeals
110
What are the two types of appeal question you might get?
1) Multiple choice name name the appeal
| 2) Find a flaw in the text
111
Are appeals flaws?
Sometimes - it depends on how they are used.
112
What is an appeal to emotion?
When an argument tries to get us to believe a particular outcome will happen just because we have an emotional response to the argument, not because of its reasons.
113
How can an appeal to emotion be spotted?
Looking for emotive language, such as “slaughtered” instead of “killed”.
114
When do appeals to emotion support the conclusion?
Only if the outcome is likely.
115
Name and evaluate the appeal:
“New ‘Pleasant-Smelling Moisturiser’ will prevent irritating dry skin and its lovely smell will make you feel pampered. You should buy some today.”
* Appeal to emotion
* Appropriate appeal -> It is not against common sense to believe that moisturiser will prevent dry skin and smell nice -> Support conclusion
116
Name and evaluate the appeal:
“New ‘Time-Reverse’ anti-wrinkle cream will reverse the ageing process and make you look as beautiful as this model. You should go out and buy some of this fabulous cream today.”
* Appeal to emotion
* Inappropriate Appeal -> You’d have to abandon common sense to believe that the cream will reverse the ageing process -> Doesn’t support conclusion
117
What is an appeal to authority?
When an argument refers to the opinions or actions of people in authority to convince us of a conclusion.
118
How can you spot appeals to authority?
They often contain quotes from the person in authority.
119
When do appeals to authority support the conclusion?
* Have relevant expertise
| * Strengthened by reasons
120
Why is an appeal to authority without reasons weak?
* We do not know a person’s reasons for claiming something.
| * Even experts can be wrong.
121
Name and evaluate the appeal:
“The Mayor said that the protest should be allowed, therefore we’re going to let it go ahead.”
* Appeal to authority
| * Inappropriate -> No reasons given, despite relevant expertise -> Doesn’t support conclusion
122
Name and evaluate the appeal:
“The Mayor said that the protest should be allowed because it will let young people show their anger in a constructive way. He added that there will be a large police presence to make sure that there’s no violence. Therefore we’re going to let it go ahead.”
* Appeal to authority
| * Appropriate -> Reasons are given and they come from an expert -> Supports the conclusion
123
What is an appeal to tradition?
When an argument tries to justify a claim by arguing that just because something’s been done a certain way in the past, it should be done in the future.
124
Name and evaluate the appeal:
“We should continue to serve the elderly residents of the care home their meals at the same time of day. That’s when they’ve always eaten in the past.”
* Appeal to tradition
| * Inappropriate -> No reason is given why the meal times shouldn’t be changed -> Doesn’t support conclusion
125
Why are appeals to tradition alone flawed?
* Just because something’s been done a certain way in the past doesn’t mean it should continue to be done that way in the future.
* The situation may have changed or it might’ve always been wrong to do it.
126
When do appeals to tradition support the conclusion?
When they are followed by reasons saying why the tradition is important.
127
Name and evaluate the appeal:
“We should continue to serve the elderly residents of the car while their meals at the same time of day. That’s when they’ve always eaten in the last and a strict routine makes them feel safe and keeps them healthy.”
* Appeal to tradition
| * Appropriate -> Reasons are given to explain why the tradition is important -> Supports the conclusion
128
What is an appeal to history?
When an argument uses what’s already happened to predict what will happen in the future.
129
Name and evaluate the appeal:
“It’s never taken me more than an hour to get home so I’ll definitely be there before 7:30.”
* Appeal to history
* Inappropriate -> The conclusion is definite (“definitely”) and based on not much evidence -> Doesn’t support conclusion
130
How can you spot an appeal to history?
They usually say that something has usually happened a certain way in the past or has never happened differently.
131
When do appeals to history support the conclusion?
* When the conclusion says that something will “probably” happen
* When It is based on lots of evidence from the past
132
Name and evaluate the appeal:
“It’s never taken me more than an hour to get home so I’ll probably be there before 7:30.”
* Appeal to history
| * Appropriate -> Says “probably” -> Supports conclusion
133
Name and evaluate the appeal:
“Girls have performed better than boys in GCSE exams every year for more than two decades. Therefore they will probably perform better this year as well.”
* Appeal to history
| * Appropriate -> Says “probably” + Based on lots of evidence from the past -> Supports conclusion
134
What is the difference between an appeal to tradition and an appeal to history?
* Tradition -> Something should be done, simply because it’s always been done that way
* History -> Something has happened lots of times before, so it’ll happen again
135
What is an appeal to popularity?
When an argument tries to convince you of a conclusion based on how popular that conclusion is.
136
Name and evaluate the appeal:
“The Shed-Kleen is the must-have shed cleaning product of the year. It’s already used by four million shed-owners in the UK. Every shed-owner should buy themselves a Shed-Kleen.”
* Appeal to popularity
| * Inappropriate -> The support for the conclusion is based purely on the popularity -> Doesn’t support conclusion
137
How can appeals to popularity be spotted?
They always refer to a large number of people (e.g. “four out of five people”).
138
Why are appeals to popularity alone flaws?
* Lots of people can be wrong about a conclusion.
| * e.g. Centuries ago people believed the Earth was the centre of the universe
139
When do appeals to popularity support the conclusion?
When something’s popularity is relevant to the conclusion (e.g. when selling a product).
140
Name and evaluate the appeal:
“The Shed-Kleen is the must-have shed cleaning product of the year. It’s already used by four million shed-owners in the UK. It is a popular product so we would sell more copies Shedlovers’ Magazine if we wrote about it.”
* Appeal to popularity
* Appropriate -> The popularity of the product is relevant to the editors of a magazine for shed lovers as they want to write about things that interest their readers -> Supports the conclusion
A LEVEL - Critical Thinking
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