1
Q
Sound Waves
A
- Vibrations in the air that we can hear.
- Frequency : Number of cycles per second in a wave.
- Determines pitch (high or low sound).
Measured in Hertz (Hz); we hear best at 2000-5000 Hz.
2
Q
Amplitude
A
- Height of a sound wave.
- Higher amplitude means louder sound
3
Q
How the ear hears
A
- Sound waves enter through the outer ear
- The sound hits the eardrum, making it vibrate.
- The eardrum’s vibrations move three tiny bones (malleus, incus, stapes) in the middle ear.
4.The last bone (stapes) pushes on a small opening called the oval window.
5.This creates waves in the fluid inside the cochlea (a spiral part of the ear).
6.The fluid waves make tiny hair cells in the cochlea bend. - Bending hair cells turn the movement into electrical signals that travel to the brain.
8.The brain receives these signals and helps us recognize the sound.
4
Q
Tonotopic Map
A
- Sound travels to the brainstem, then the thalamus, and finally the auditory cortex
5
Q
Frequency Theory
A
- Different sound frequencies cause different rates of nerve signals.
- Higher frequencies result in faster nerve firing
6
Q
Place Theory
A
- Different frequencies activate specific regions of the basilar membrane.
- The brain identifies pitch based on where activity occurs.
7
Q
Absolute Pitch
A
- Ability to recognize or produce any musical note
- More common in speakers of tonal languages (e.g., Mandarin Chinese
8
Q
Sound Adaptation : Mechanisms
A
- Muscles around the ears contract to limit sound intake.
- Ears become less sensitive to constant noises.
- The brain filters out unimportant sounds
9
Q
Cocktail Party Effect
A
- ability to hear relevant sounds in noisy environments.
10
Q
Sound Localization : General Loudness
A
Louder sounds seem closer; we perceive distance based on loudness.
11
Q
Sound Localization : Loudness in Each Ear
A
The ear closer to the sound hears it louder due to sound intensity differences.
12
Q
Sound Localization : Timing
A
Sound waves reach the nearest ear first, helping the brain locate the sound’s direction.
13
Q
Prenatal Hearing
A
Babies can hear sounds before they are born, including voices and music.
14
Q
Postnatal Development
A
Infants quickly learn to recognize and respond to familiar sounds, especially their mother’s voice.
15
Q
Preference for Speech
A
Newborns show a preference for speech over nonspeech sounds, indicating early social engagement.
16
Q
Deafness
A
Can be partial or complete; causes include genetics, infections, loud noises, and trauma.
17
Q
Tinnitus
A
A ringing or buzzing sound in the ears; affects about 1 in 200 people; often linked to hearing loss or damage.
18
Q
Cochlear Implants
A
Medical devices that can restore some hearing by directly stimulating auditory nerves.
19
Q
Rods
A
These help you see in dim light and detect movement. There are over 100 million rods in each eye.
20
Q
Cones
A
These help you see colors and sharp images. There are about 4.5 to 6 million cones, mostly in the center of the retina (called the fovea).
21
Q
Hue
A
This is the actual color you see, like red, green, or blue.
22
Q
Saturation
A
This tells how bright or vivid the color is; more saturation means a brighter color.
23
Q
Brightness
A
This is how much light reflects off an object; brighter colors reflect more light.
24
Q
Trichromatic Theory
A
We have three types of color sensors in our eyes that detect red, green, and blue. Other colors come from mixing these three.
25
Opponent Process Theory
Colors work in pairs that can cancel each other out (like red and green); this explains why we can’t see certain mixed colors like reddish-green.
26
How the eye works
1.Light Enters: Light passes through the cornea and enters the eye through the pupil.
2. Iris Adjusts: The iris changes the size of the pupil to control the amount of light.
3. Lens Focuses: The lens adjusts its shape to focus light onto the retina.
4. Retina Detects: The retina has cells (rods for dim light and cones for color) that convert light into electrical signals.
5. Signals to Brain: These signals travel through the optic nerve to the brain.
6. Brain Interprets: The brain processes the signals, allowing you to see the image.
27
Visual Pathway : Optic Nerve
Think of this as a highway that carries signals from the retina (back of the eye) to the thalamus (the brain’s relay station).
28
Visual Pathway : Thalamus
Acts like a traffic cop, directing visual information to the visual cortex (where vision is processed).
29
"What" Pathway
Purpose: Helps us identify what an object is.
Example: When you see a dog, this pathway helps you recognize it as a dog.
30
Visual Agnosia
If someone has damage in this area, they might see a dog but not know it’s a dog.
31
Prosopagnosia
A specific type of visual agnosia where someone can’t recognize faces. For example, they might see a friend but not be able to identify them.
32
"Where" Pathway
Purpose: Helps us locate where an object is in space.
Example: If you see a ball rolling towards you, this pathway helps you figure out its position.
33
Hemi-Neglect
Someone with this condition might only eat food from one side of their plate, ignoring the other side completely, as they can’t see it.
34
Gestalt Laws : Similarity
We group similar things together.
Example: If you see a group of red circles and blue squares, you naturally group the red circles together and the blue squares together.
35
Gestalt Laws : Continuity
We prefer to see continuous patterns rather than separate segments.
Example: If a line curves, we see it as a single flowing line rather than broken segments.
36
Gestalt Laws : Closure
We fill in gaps to perceive complete shapes.
Example: If you see a circle with a small section missing, your brain fills in the gap, and you perceive it as a complete circle.
37
Gestalt Laws : Figure-Ground
We distinguish objects (figures) from their background.
Example: In a picture of a dog in the grass, the dog is the figure, and the grass is the background.
38
Gestalt Laws : Proximity
Grouping: We see objects that are close together as a group.
Example: If you see a cluster of stars in the sky, you perceive them as a constellation rather than separate stars.
39
Binocular Cues
Information from both eyes helps us perceive depth.
Example: When you use both eyes to gauge how far away a tree is, your brain combines the images to judge distance.
40
Retinal Disparity
Each eye sees slightly different images (like looking through a pair of binoculars).
41
Convergence
When you look at something very close, like your nose, your eyes angle inward, helping your brain know it’s close.
42
Monocular Cues
Information from one eye helps us understand depth.
43
Relative Height
We see objects higher up as farther away.
Example: A bird flying high in the sky looks smaller than a dog on the ground.
44
Texture Gradient
Close objects show more detail than far away objects.
Example: You can see the individual leaves on a tree up close but only see a green blur from far away.
45
Relative Size
When comparing two similar objects, the one that looks smaller seems farther away.
Example: A car in the distance looks smaller than a nearby car, even though they are the same size.
46
Linear Perspective
Parallel lines appear to converge in the distance.
Example: Train tracks look like they meet at a point in the distance.
47
Müller-Lyer Illusion
Two lines are the same length, but one appears longer because of the arrows at the ends.
48
Ponzo Illusion
Two horizontal lines are the same length, but the one on a set of converging lines appears longer due to depth perception.
49
Perceptual Constancy
Our brain's ability to see things as the same even when the situation changes (like lighting or distance).
50
Size Constancy
We recognize that an object is the same size no matter how far away it is.
Example: A car far away looks smaller, but you know it’s still the same size as a car that’s close.
51
Shape Constancy
We see an object as having the same shape, no matter what angle we view it from.
Example: A door looks like a rectangle even when it’s partly open.
52
Development of Sight
Newborns: Can see but their vision is blurry. It gets better by about 2 months.
8 Months: By this age, babies’ vision is close to that of adults.
Experience: Interacting with their surroundings helps babies develop better vision.
53
Visual Impairments and Loss :
Strabismus
When the eyes don’t work together properly. About 2-4% of people have this issue.
54
Amblyopia
This is when one eye doesn’t see well, often because it didn’t get enough visual input by age six.
55
Visual Impairments in Canada
About 500,000 people have visual impairments in Canada. Each year, 50,000 Canadians lose their sight.
56
Braille
A special reading system using raised dots for people who can’t see well.
57
Other adaptations
People may use assistive technologies, special glasses, or develop other ways to navigate their environment.
58
Kinesthetic Sense
This sense helps you know where your body parts are and how they are moving.
Example: You can touch your nose with your eyes closed because your muscles send signals to your brain.
59
Vestibular Sense
Located in the inner ear, this sense helps you balance and understand your body’s position.
Example: When you tilt your head, the fluid in your inner ear moves, helping you feel whether you’re standing straight or leaning.
Chapter 5 : Sensory & Perception
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