1
Q
Sex vs Gender
A
Sex
- biological aspects
Gender
- cultural aspects
2
Q
Sex Chromosome
A
Among the 23 pairs of chromosomes that we have, one pair is the sex chromosome which denotes XX for female and XY for male
3
Q
Sex-linked Characters
A
Characteristics (or traits) that are influenced by genes carried on the sex chromosomes (X chromosomes)
4
Q
Androgen
A
- A hormone produced by an early embryonic testis (along with anti-mullerian hormone; without them, female sex organs develop)
- Masculinising
- A category of hormones (one of them is testosterone)
5
Q
Estrogen/Oestrogen
A
- One of the main female sex hormones (crucial for puberty, menstrual cycle, pregnancy, bone strength, etc.)
- Helps the female reproductive organs (ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus/womb, vagina) to grow and mature
6
Q
Testosterone
A
- The primary male hormone
- Responsible for regulating sex differentiation, producing male sex characteristics, spermatogenesis, and fertility
7
Q
Dihydrotestosterone (DHT)
A
- An androgen/hormone that is responsible for turning external genitalia into the male developmental pattern
- keluarnya dari testis
8
Q
Androstenedione
A
- A precursor to testosterone
- The body turns andro into the hormone testosterone and a form of estrogen
- High levels of this can lead to PCOS in women
9
Q
Anti-müllerian hormone
A
- A hormone produced by an early embryonic testis (along with androgens; without them, female sex organs would develop)
- Defeminising
10
Q
Defeminisation
A
- literally, it means reducing/eliminating female-typical qualities in an individual
- in the context of anti-mullerian hormone, this means the inhibition of female sex organ development
11
Q
Masculinisation
A
- literally, it means increasing the male-typical characteristics of an individual
- in the context of androgens, it promotes development of male sex organs
12
Q
Müllerian system
A
- Precursor of female organs
13
Q
Wolffian system
A
- Precursor of male organs
14
Q
Differentiation
A
- The development of the phenotypic features of sex, namely the development of the internal and external male or female structures
- This hormone-driven process depends on the presence or absence of Anti-Mullerian hormone or androgenic sex steroids
15
Q
Gonad
A
- Gonad refers to a sex gland or a reproductive gland that produces the gametes and sex hormones of an organism
- TESTIS-DETERMINING FACTOR: The SRY gene (located on the Y-chromosome) is what turns the fetal gonad into a testis (2 testes)
- In the absence of this SRY gene, the gonad becomes an ovary
16
Q
Preoptic area of the Hypothalamus
A
17
Q
Kisspeptin
A
- Activation of this neuron marks the ‘start’ of puberty
- Improves sexual and attraction brain activity in key brain areas in women
- Involved in utero sexual development and determine t he onset of puberty
18
Q
Organisational effects of hormones
A
- Effect remains after the hormone has been removed
- Often occurs during a sensitive period
19
Q
Activational effects of hormones
A
- Effect is reversible
- The effect is only there when the hormone is present
20
Q
Pituitary gland (anterior and posterior pituitary gland)
A
- Anterior: release of LH and FSH and ACTH (controlled by the hypothalamus)
- Posterior: store and release oxytocin and vasopressin (controlled by hypothalamus)
21
Q
Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
A
Male: Sperm production
Female: Cause follicles to ripen
22
Q
Luteinising Hormone (LH)
A
Male: Testosterone production
Female: Induce ovulation and formation of Corpus Luteum
23
Q
Vasopressin
A
- A hormone synthesized in the hypothalamus
- Role in the control of the body’s osmotic balance, blood pressure regulation, sodium homeostasis, and kidney functioning
24
Q
Oxytocin
A
- A natural hormone that manages key aspects of the female and male reproductive systems
- Made by the hypothalamus; Stored and released by the posterior pituitary gland
25
Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone (GnRH)
- This hormone makes the sex hormones -- testosterone, estrogen and progesterone
- Controls the production of LH and FSH
- Released from the hypothalamus
26
Hypothalamus-Pituitary-Gonadal axis
- A negative feedback loop
- Keeps the levels within a fixed range for regulation of gonadal hormones
27
Estradiol (Oestradiol)
- Female hormone
- Mature and maintain the reproductive system
- During mens cycle, it causes maturation and release of the egg as well as the thickening of the uterus lining to allow a fertilised egg to implant
28
Progesterone
- An endogenous steroid hormone that is produced by the adrenal cortex and gonads (ovaries and testes)
- Prepares the endometrium (uterus lining) for a fertilised egg to implant and grow
- Secreted by the ovarian corpus luteum during the first ten weeks of pregnancy
29
Meiosis
- Cell division
- Reduces the number of chromosomes in the parent cell by half and produces four gamete cells
- Produces egg and sperm cells for sexual reproduction
30
Haploid
A cell that contains a single set of chromosomes
31
Diploid
-A cell that contains two complete sets of chromosomes
- 23 pairs
32
Aneuploidy
The condition of having an abnormal number of chromosomes in a haploid set
33
Monosomy
The absence of one member of a pair of chromosomes
34
Nondisjunction
Failure of the chromosomes to separate, which produces daughter cells with abnormal numbers of chromosomes
35
Turner's Syndrome (XO)
- Only in females
- Results when one of the X chromosomes is missing or partially missing
- Can cause a variety of medical/dev problems, e.g. short height, failure in ovary development, heart defects
36
Pseudo-autosomal regions
- Blocks of sequence identity between the mammalian sex chromosomes
- These regions of the human X and Y chromosomes pair and recombine during meiosis
37
Klinefelter Syndrome
- A condition where boys and men are born with an extra X chromosome
- Male internal and external genitalia (but small testes); Some female secondary sexual characteristics
- Puts males at greater risk of breast cancer, some other cancers, and other diseases
38
Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome
- Typically characterised by evidence of feminisation of the external genitalia at birth
- A person with CAIS can appear to be female but have no uterus, no fallopian tubes or ovaries (no internal or external genitalia)
39
5ɑ-reductase Deficiency
- Turns testosterone into DHT
- These children are born with female external genitalia but male internal genitalia
40
Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia
- High levels of prenatal testosterone in girls
- Ambiguous external genitalia in girls (Some were identified as male at birth)
41
Spatial Mental Rotation Task
42
Gynophile
An individual who is attracted to women
43
Androphile
An individual who is attracted to men
44
INAH-3
- A part in the brain's hypothalamus (2.8x larger in males)
- Involved in directing typical male sex behaviour, such as attraction to females
45
Anterior Commissure
- A collection of nerve fibres that cross the midline of the spinal cord and transmit information from or to the contralateral side of the brain
- Connects the two cerebral hemispheres of the brain concerned with olfactory pathway
46
Interstitial nuclei of the anterior hypothalamus (INAH)
- 4 previously undescribed cell groups of the preoptic-anterior hypothalamic area of the human brain
47
2D/4D ratio
48
Oto-acoustic emissions
- When stimulated with a click, ears make a sound back
- Sounds generated from the cochlea transmitted across the middle ear to the external ear canal
- A marker for inner ear health and a simple way to screen for hearing loss
49
Monozygotic twins
- The egg divides into 2, creating identical twins who share the same genes
50
Dizygotic twins
- Two separate eggs are fertilised by two separate sperm, resulting in fraternal or dizygotic (two-cell) twins
51
Concordance
52
Heterozygote advantage
- The relative fitness of heterozygotes is higher than the relative fitness of either type of homozygotes
53
Kin selection
- Occurs when an animal engages in self-sacrificial behaviour that benefits genetic fitness of its relatives
54
Fraternal birth order effect
FBOE describes the phenomenon that homosexual men tend to have greater number of older brothers than do heterosexual men
55
Maternal immunization hypothesis
Anti-H-Y antibodies produced by the mother pass through the placental barrier to the fetus and affect aspects of sexual differentiation in the fetal brain
56
Gender identity
- A person's internal sense of being male, female, etc.
- Different from gender expression which refers to the way they communicate gender identity to others through behaviour, clothing, voice, etc.
57
Gender dysphoria
The feeling of discomfort or stress that might occur in people whose gender identity differs from their sex assigned at birth or sex-related physical characteristics
58
FtM trans
Female to Male
59
MtF trans
Male to Female
60
What is the sequence for DNA to protein?
DNA - transcription - RNA - translation - protein
61
Neurotransmitters vs Hormones
Neurotransmitters
- From one neuron to the next
- Local action (nm)
- Effects can be activation or inhibition, depending on the transmitter/receptor combination
Hormones
- Released from an endocrine cell into the bloodstream
- Global action
- Effects can be varied, depending on the hormone/receptor combination
