1
Q
Causes of Development
A
- Philosophical debate around the cause of human development
- Nature - Biology/Heredity/Maturation (Rousseau)
- Nurture - Locke’s tabula rasa, Bandura
2
Q
Maturation
A
- Aspect of Nature
- Natural growth that unflods in a fixed sequence
- Growth that is independant of the environment
3
Q
Behaviourism
A
- All behaviour is learned
- There is no such thing as free will
- Watson & Skinner
4
Q
Contemporary Approaches to Developmental Psychology
A
- Heredity and biology creates predispositions
- Predisposition interacts with environmental influences
- How much nature or nurture combinations are still not certain due to
- Need to differentiate simple vs. complex Characteristics (e.g. height v. intelligence).
- Reciprocal interaction between heredity and environment are correlated, e.g., intelligence.
- Children are Niche Pickers they actively choose
environments that best suit their genetic predispositions.
5
Q
Prenatal Development
A
- Development begins at fertilisation of ovum
- New cell nucleus is created from genetic material of both parents
- One celled organism is created call a zygote
6
Q
Three Stages of Prenatal Development
A
- Germinal Stage
- Embryonic Stage
- Foetal Stage
7
Q
Germinal Stage
A
- Fertilisation to two weeks gestation
- Zygote begins to divide 24-36 hours after
fertilisation - Travels down the fallopian tubes
to the uterus. - Blastocyst is formed (150 cells), attaches to
the walls of the uterus and is fully embedded
in the wall of the uterus.
8
Q
Embryonic Stage
A
- Two weeks gestation to two months gestation (i.e., week 3 to week 8 after conception
- Rapid development of major organs
- Placenta Develops
e.g., heart, nervous system, stomach, sex organs.
- By end of this stage embryo Measures 2.5cm in length.
- Develops eyes, ears, nose, jaw, mouth,lips, arms, hands, fingers, legs, feet, toes.
9
Q
Foetal Stage
A
- Two months Gestation to nine months gestation
- Six months gestation
- Eyelids open.
- Foetus can breathe regularly for 24 hour length periods.
- Viable (but not guaranteed) of surviving outside of the womb.
- Eight months gestation (i.e. from approx.
- Responds to light and touch.
- Learning occurs
- habituation.
10
Q
Habituation
A
- a decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated presentations
11
Q
Factors affecting prenatal development
A
- The timing and stages of prenatal development are Biologically determined
- Affected by the environment in the womb
- Effects of teratogens especially important.
12
Q
Teratogens
A
- External substances that can penetrate the placenta,
- Cause spontaneous abortion or birth defects.
- Affect development when ingested by during rapid organ development
13
Q
Teratogen Examples: Maternal Illness
A
- Bacteria and protozoa
- Toxoplasmosis (raw meat/fish, cat feces).
- Effects: blindness, deafness, intellectual disabilities
- Toxoplasmosis (raw meat/fish, cat feces).
- Viruses
- Rubella ( esp 1st trimester)
- Effects: blindness, deafness, intellectual disabilities, heart defects, cerebral palsy, microcephaly, risk of miscarriage, fetal death
- Cytomegalovirus (CMV) → flu like symptoms
- Effects: blindness, deafness, intellectual disabilities, neurological deficits, risk of miscarriage, fetal death
- Herpes Simplex (C section recommended to avoid exposure to virus)
- Effects: eye/vision problems, early exposure = brain damage/death
- HIV/AIDS (contracted through blood exchange, breastfeeding)
- Rubella ( esp 1st trimester)
14
Q
Teratogen Exmples: Drug Use
A
- Nicotine
- Alcohol
- Thalidomide
15
Q
Teratogens - Environmental Factors
A
- Maternal Nutrition
- Environmental toxins and hazards, pesticides, lead & mercury
- Emotional Stress
16
Q
Newborn Physical Development
A
- The physical body grows rapidly from birth throughout infancy
- Weight:
- 3kg at birth; infant’s weight doubles by 4 months; gradual weight increase to 2 years as bones & muscles grow.
- Length:
- Babies gain 2.5cm per month for each of the first 12 months .
17
Q
Newborn Physical Development
A
- By infancy’s end, 2 year olds achieved:
- 50% adult height.
- 20% adult weight.
- Brain undergoes massive development and growth
- 2 years old: 75% of adult brain weight.
18
Q
Newborn Vision
A
- Newborn vision is blurry (20/300 eyesight).
- Able to see large objects at close range.
- Stare longest at objects that have qualities and contours resembling those of a human face.
- Depth perception Develops at 7 months of age.
19
Q
Newborn Depth Perception
A
- The visual cliff
- A test of acquired depth perception
- Depth perception acquired around the same time
20
Q
Newborn Hearing
A
- Hearing attuned to sounds of speech with a preference for:
- Rising tones (women/children; men tend to use the same tone of voice for infants, children and adults).
- High pitched, exaggerated, expressive speech, parentese
- Hearing does not develop adult like acuity until childhood.
21
Q
Newborn Smell
A
- Odor preferences from birth
- Affected by mother’s diet during pregnancy
- Can locate odors and identify mother by smell from birth
22
Q
Newborn Taste
A
- Prefer sweet tastes at birth
- Aversion to sour and bitter tastes
- Preference for salty foods by 4 months
- Quickly learn to like new tastes
23
Q
Newborn Touch
A
- Develops before all other senses
- Helps stimulate early physical growth
- Vital for emotional development
- Gentle stroking can reduce distress in infants
- Physical touch releases endorphins
24
Q
Pain Sensitivity in Newborns
A
- Sensitive to pain, even at birth
- Pain increases levels of cortisol which can impact development
- Relieve pain with:
- anesthetics
- breast milk
- sugar
- gentle holding
25
Newborn Motor Development
* Refers to the progression of muscular co-ordination required for physical activities.
* Gross Motor
* Fine Motor
26
Cephalocaudal Development
Head to foot direction of motor development
27
Proximodistal Development
* Centre to outward extremities
* Gain control of core then extrimities
28
Newborn Reflexes
* Important aspect of newborn motor development
* Are involuntary
* Unlearned behaviours that occur in response to external stimuli
* Tonic neck Reflex
* Grasp Reflex or Palmer Grasp
* Step Reflex
* Crawl Reflex
* Rooting
* Moro Startle Reflex - may have adaptive value
29
Developmental Motor Norms
* Motor abilities develop spontaneously and in the same order
* Motor skills develop at roughly the same rate
* Biological norms as a consequence of maturation
30
Median Ages for Motor Norms
* Lifts head - 2 weeks.
* Rolls over - 2.5 months.
* Sits - 5.5 months.
* Stands alone - 11.5 months.
* Walks alone - 12.5 months.
Variations up to 2 - 4 months
31
Challenge to Maturation Perspective
* Recent research indicates motor development results from maturation and experience
* Motor development relies on nature and nurture
32
Physical Development 2-6 years
* Pace of growth slower in childhood than during infancy:
* 6 - 8cm gain in height per year between ages 2 - 6 years.
* 2 - 3kg gain in weight per year between ages 2 - 6 years.
* Not meeting these milestones: failure to thrive; cause for further investigations/assessments to ascertain why
* Girls and boys grow at similar rates during childhood.
* Growth trajectory same for girls and boys then shifts with pre pubertal growth spurt in girls.
33
Chart Motor Skills in Childhood
34
Growth Trends in Middle Childhood
* Regular gains in height and weight:
* Yearly increase of 6cm
* Yearly weight gain of 2.25kg.
* Gains in delicate fine motor control and co ordination
* Necessary for artistic, musical, and athletic accomplishments.
* Brain approaches full adult size early in middle childhood 90% adult volume at 6 years
* Additional 10% that occurs in middle childhood crucial
* Contributes to plasticity of human brain.
35
Obesity
* Prevalence of overweight/obesity in children and adolescents increased by 47% worldwide from 1980 2013 (Ng et al. 2013).
* Globally, number of overweight children \< 5 years ~ \>41 million in 2016
* US - 18.4% children between 6 12 years are obese (body weight \> 20% above ideal weight) (CDC)
* Australia - 1 4 Australian children (ages 2 17) overweight/obese in 2017/18 (AIHW)
* Causes: dietary intake, physical activity, sedentary behaviour (Sahoo et al. 2015)
* Genetics can play a role but is not cause of dramatic increase in childhood obesity
* Can be subject to stigmatisation and teased/bullied about weight
* May face discrimination, social marginalisation, exclusion from activities (i.e., physical activities
* Can negatively affect school performance
36
Adolescence 13-20 years
* Profound changes in physical development at adolescence affect developments in cognition and personal psychology:
* Affect how adolescent perceives self
* Affect how adolescent is perceived by others
* Biological event of PUBERTY elicits neurological, cognitive, and social changes in adolescence.
37
Puberty
* Pubertal changes relate only to universal changes of adolescence
* Physical maturation of child into adult capable of reproduction.
* Triggered by hormonal changes
* Regulated by the endocrine system (glands, hormones)
38
Puberty involves
* Growth of the reproductive organs.
* Changes in body fat/muscle distribution.
* Onset of menstruation in women ( menarche
* First ejaculation of sperm in males ( spermarche
* Pubertal changes take from 2 years to 4 years to complete.
39
Secular Trend in Puberty
* Tanner (1968)
* Tendency for puberty to begin at earlier ages than in previous generations.
* The secular trend involves:
* Decrease in the age of menarche
* Age at menarche has dropped by 3 to 4 months every ten years.
* Increase in growth rate
* Increase in height and weight
40
Why has the Secular Trend in Puberty occured
The secular trend is believed to result from:
* “Improved” nutrition - food is more available
* Food is now hormone enhanced
* Better health care and knowledge of childhood illnesses.
* Improved sanitation
41
Effects of Pubertal Timing
* Differences in the rate of physical maturation at puberty has THREE consequences for adolescents.
* Some mature earlier .
* Some will mature at approximately the same time
* Some will mature later
* Theories account for effects of pubertal timing
* Deviance hypothesis - partial support.
* Stage Termination Hypothesis - partial support.
42
Body Image
* Self evaluation that the individual makes of his/her own body.
* Multidimensional construct comprising evaluation of:
* Weigh
* Muscularity.
* Body strength and condition.
* Shape and size of various bodily parts.
43
Two Components of Body Image
* Body image has TW O components:
* Perceptual - what we see.
* Affective - How we feel about what we see (also known as body esteem).
Female body image:
* Based on amount of body fat.
* Consistently worse than males’ body image.
Male body image
* Based on amount of body fat + muscularity.
* Previously more positive, but rates of eating disorders rising.
44
Adulthood
* THREE unique stages of the lifespan, each with their own
* biological, cognitive, and social changes:
* Early adulthood 20 years 39 years.
* Middle Adulthood 40 years 64 years.
* Late Adulthood 65 years + .
45
Early Adulthood
* Physical growth continues with increases in:
* Shoulder width.
* Height.
* Chest size.
46
Middle Adulthood
Most common physical changes are loss of sensory sharpness
* Hearing loss.
* Less sensitive to light.
* Increased farsightedness.
* Menopause in Women
47
Menopause
* Cessation of menstrual period 45-55 years
* Lowering of oestrogen levels in blood
* Decreased fertililty and fewer ova produced
* Symptoms such as hot flashes, dizziness, headache, weight gain.
* Increased risk for heart disease.
* Decreases in bone mass.
48
Middle Adulthood Changes
* Osteoporotic changes
* Peak bone density in 30s
* Osteoporosis reduced density and strength in bones
* More bone cells are metabolised than are created
* Men are also at significant risk of osteoporosis
* Almost 25% of those diagnosed in Australia with osteoporosis are men.
49
Late Adulthood
* Decreases in height from thinning cartilage
* Men 1 inch, women 2 inches).
* Hardening of arteries and build up of fat on artery walls - heart disease
* Digestive system slows and becomes less efficient.
* Decrease in brain size and flow of blood to brain.
50
5 theories to explain Old Age Development
* Evolutionary theory.
* Cellular clock theory.
* Free radical theory.
* Mitochondrial theory.
* Hormonal stress theory.
Not known which of the five thories best accounts for ageing, research exists to support all of them
51
Evolutionary Theory
* Benefits granted by evloutionary selection decrease with age
* Natural selection does not eliminate harmful conditions or non-adaptive characteristics in older adults
* Natural selection is connected to reproductive fitness and only present in early adulthood
* If Alzheimers occured earlier in development it may have been eliminated centuries ago
52
Cellular Clock Theory
* Hayflick Number - Cells can divide a maximum of 75 to 80 times.
* As humans age, cells become less capable of dividing.
* Limit to human lifespan 120 to 125 years.
* It all depends on telomeres
53
Telomeres
* DNA sequences that cap chromosomes
* Each time cells divide Telomeres become shorter
* Cells can no longer divide after about 70-80 replicaitons
* Telomeres become so reduced they can no longer reproduce and the cell dies
* Lifespan length = maximum life of cells
54
Cellular Clock Theory - Supporting Research
* Injecting telomerase into human cells extends life of cells beyond 70-80 replicaitons in a laboratory
* Healthy Centenarians have longer telomeres than unheathy ones
* **Issues**
* Telomerase is present in approx 85% of cancerous cells
* May not produce healthy life extension of cells
* **Current Research**
* Gene therapis that lead to death of cancerous cells while maintaining lifespan of healthy cells
55
Free-Radical Theory
* When cells lmetabolsie energy by products include free radicals
* Free Radicals bounce areound cells and damage DNA and cellular structures
* Damage leads to range of disorders like cancer & arthritis
* Free radical increase associated with overeating
* Low calorie diet maintains nutrients reduces oxidative damage caused by free radicals
56
Free Radicals
57
Free Radical Theory - Supporting Research
F
58
Mitochondria
* Minute bodies within cells that supply energy for cell function, growth and repair
* Decay in mitochondria leads to aging
* Decay caused by:
* Oxidative damage by free radicals
* Loss of critical micronutrients supplied by cell
* Defects in mitochondria associated with:
* Cardiovascular disease.
* Neurodegenerative diseases; e.g., Parkinson’s Disease and dementia.
* Decline in liver functioning.
* Not known if defects in mitochondria cause aging or accompany the ageing process
59
Hormonal Stress Theory
* When individuals experience stress, body responds by releasing hormones like adrenaline and corticosteroids
* Individually levels of hormones remain at elevated levels for longer than when younger
* Prolonged, elevated levels of stress hormones associated with high risk of many diseases
* cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes, hypertension.
2052 - Lifespan Development
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