1
Q
Is visceral pain localized
A
No - it uses interoreceptors
2
Q
Paresis
A
Difficulty taking movement - weakness
3
Q
Menance response
A
Is learned response not a reflex
Uses optic and facial nerve to make eye blink
4
Q
Cranial nerves
A
Old opinions occur to try adding fake valuES- giving vagina anti hero
5
Q
Retrobulbar nerve block in ruminant
A
Between frontal process of zygomatic bone and temporal process of zygomatic bone
6
Q
Cervical spinal cord segments versus cervical vertebrate
A
8
7
7
Q
Severity of nerve injury
A
Neuropraxia
Axonotmesis
Neurotmesis
8
Q
Steps in sensory perception
A
Detection+ transduction (mechanical into electric>
Transmission
Modulation w/ other input
Perception @sensory cortex
9
Q
Primary vs secondary sensory receptor
A
1° is specialized nerve ending of neuron
- olfactory receptors that are bipolar neuron
2° is another cell that sends chemical signal to sensory neuron
- hair cells in ear
- and rods and cone in eye
- taste receptor types w Na H (sour) and GCPR w Na channel (sweet umami)
10
Q
Stimulus over long time- adaption
A
Tonic - less generation of I action potential over time
Slow adapting
Phasic - fire initially and stop action potential until end turn off
Rapidly adapting
11
Q
TRP
A
Transient receptor potential channels
-itch receptors that respond to chemical stimuli
12
Q
In skin nerve ending
A
Epidermis+dermis
13
Q
Low threshold, mechano receptors
A
Primary sensory receptors
That can be rapidly adapting or slow adapting to continuous stimuli
Large or small, receptive field
14
Q
Thermoreceptors have both low and high threshold
A
Low threshold is going to be cold detection, and it is myelinated axons
High threshold is going to be warmth and it’s unmyelinated and it’s in spicy food
15
Q
Proprioception is done by
A
Golgi organ which carries inverse myotic reflex. It excites antagonist, alpha motor neurons to contract muscle. It inhibits agonist, alpha motor neurons to relax muscle.
Joint Kinesthetic sensory -joint capsule
Muscle spindle
-gamma motor neurons,
-and type 1a and type 2 sensory neurons
16
Q
Spinal nerves cover
A
An area of skin (dermatome) muscle, and organs. They are sensory and motor.
The somatosensory receptors are only on the outside of the body and not visceral.
17
Q
In the spinal cord, the dorsal finiculus is divided into
A
Dorsal columnS which are divided into
faciculus gracillis closer to the dorsal medial fissure
- For hind, limb and caudal body
and faciculus cutaneous
-Front limb and cranial body
18
Q
Ascending path
A
Spinoreticular
spinovestibular
Spinocerebellar
Lateral
Ventral
Dorsal column
19
Q
Thalamus
A
Diencephalon
ventral nucleus is important to spinothalamic and dorsal column tract aka medial lemniscus up
20
Q
Somatotrophic map
A
Indicates the areas with larger number of sensory nerves have more area in the somatosensory cortex
21
Q
Cranial nerves that provide somatosensory innervation to the head
A
579
22
Q
Is visceral pain localizeD
A
No, it is dull
Done through interoreceptors (detect stretch and inflammation)
But since there’s no somatosensory receptor in viscera, there is no itch or a temperature
Somatically innervated by the spinal nerve and autonomically innervated by cranial nerves
23
Q
Trigeminal nucleus and which nerves
A
Spinal nucleus is for pain and temperature
Pontine nucleus is for position and light touch
Mesencephalic nucleus is for muscle spindle input
Glossopharyngeal and facial and Trigeminal
24
Q
Nociceptive versus neuropathic: because of neurons, nerves, spinal cord
A
Neuropathic because it is a disease of the nervous system
Burns
25
Which cranial nerves are part of the CNS
Olfactory and Optic
26
Numerous unmyelinated axons not a single nerve
bipolar neurons replaced monthly
No nuclei in brain stem
Olfactory nerve
Cell body within olfactory mucosa via cribriform plate
27
Ganglion cells of retina
Optic n.
Optic canal via pterygopalatine fossa
28
Cavernous sinus had
3 4 5 6 CN
29
Cranial nerve
Motor CN 3,4,6,11,12
Sensory CN 1,2,8
Mixed CN 5 (mandibular n), 7, 9, 10
30
Longest CN
Largest CN
Smallest CN
Vagus long
Trigeminal large
Trochlear smallest and crosses
31
Cervical ventroflex common in
Cats - shows sign of motor unit disease
32
most common polyneuropathy of dogs
Acute polyradiculoneuritis
Coonhound paralysis
33
Differentials for acute flaccid paralysis
Accute polyradiculoneuritis
Botulism
Tick paralysis
Acute/fulminant myasthenia gravis
34
Which cranial nerves are for taste
Facial grossopharyngeal vagus
35
Sweet Taste
And sour
Sour- hydrogen ion channel
Sweet and umami - gpcr for sodium channel
36
The organ of CORTI
The sensory epithelium, that’s in the cochlea of the inner ear that senses sound. It is lined with hair cells on the basilar membrane that are moved by a tectorial membrane.
37
Do hair cells regenerate
No, they don’t and high frequency hair cells are lost first they are closer to the oval window
38
The anterior semicircular canal
The anterior semicircular canal is for nodding
The posterior semicircular canal is for wiggling side to side
The lateral semicircular canal is for saying no
39
With the otolith organs, the saccule is vertical and the utricle is horizontal
So, when moving forward and backward, there is no effect on the saccule, but the utricle changes
Moving up and down, there is an effect in the saccule
When the sterocillium move towards the Kinocilium, then it is a change in the utricle -horizontal
40
What type of atrophy is seen with upper motor neuron disease?
Disuse atrophy
Lower motor neuron disease has neurogenic atrophy, which is more severe and acute
41
Cervical vertebrae to spinal cord segments
There are seven cervical vertebrae, and there are eight spinal cord segments in the cervical region
42
Define opisthotonus
Star gazing happens with decerebrate posture
43
Facial nerve is
motor to muscle of facial expression (different from muscles of mastication), sensory to the inner ear pinnea, has parasympathetic innervation to lacrimal gland
44
No menance and no palpebral is a
facial n prob
45
Motor to the soft palate and pharyngeal muscles
Vagus and glossopharyngeal nerve
10 motor to larynx esophagus with 11 (accessory)
9 caudal 1/3 toungue taste
46
Lateral thoracic Herve
Panicles reflex - cutaneous trunk reflex from C8 - T1
47
Axonotmesis
Separation of axons from the cell body, but the structures that are supporting are intact
48
A motor unit
Lower motor neuron
neuromuscular junction
Muscle fibers that the neuron innervates
49
Test for diffuse neuromuscular disease
Electrodiagnostic like ECG
Muscle or nerve biopsy - will be able to see nerve in muscle biopsy
-look at myelination and denervation
CT or MRI
CSF
Ck
50
Neuronopathy axonopathy demyelination
Neuronopathy: primary injury to cell body, secondary demyelination.
• Axonopathy: primary injury to axon, secondary demyelination.
• Demyelination: Primary loss of myelin, no change to axon.
51
Dysautonomia
Degenerative autonomic disease the leads to lack of salivation slow hr large eye pupils (mydriasis)
52
Central nervous system is
Peripheral nervous system is
CNS Susceptible to injury, and is protected by bony structures
PNS is not acceptable to injury, so it is not protected by bony structures
53
Which cells are susceptible to injury
Neurons are most susceptible to injury because they are the most metabolically active in the CNS
Then it is the glial cells, which are the astrocytes that provide structural support, oligodendrocytes that create myelin, and microglia that clean up as phagocytic cells
Lastly, it is the blood vessels
54
Types of edema in the neuronal parenchyma
Vasogenic, which is around the blood vessels MOST COMMON BRAIN EDEMA
Cytotoxic which is intracellular edema
Interstitial, which is between the ependymal cells and the Nueurophil
55
Most common location for congenital hydrocephalus
Mesencephalic aqueduct
56
Hydroencephaly vs hydraencephaly
Hydroencep is fluid in the ventricular system, which can be communicating or not communicating
Hydroencep is fluid within the cerebrum which causes necrosis
Hi, I ran through the cerebrum
57
where is polioencephalomalacia?
It is commonly in the laminar grey of cerebral cortex. It is different in large and small animals for the pathogenesis.
In large animals, it is thiamine deficiency, salt, poisoning, or lead toxicosis
In small animals, it is seizure activity, or hypoglycemia, which limits the supply of energy that neurons get in the cerebral cortex causing necrosis
58
Equine Leuko encephalomalacia
Moldy corn disease that’s from mycotoxin FUSARIUM, which causes asymmetric bilateral lesions in the white matter
59
Thiamine deficiency in carnivore versus ruminant
And ruminants it is polio encephalomalacia, which is in the cerebral cortex
In carnivores, it is because of excess thiaminase which causes necrosis along the caudal colliculi
60
High carbohydrates can cause enterotoxemia
Clostridium perfringens D causes symmetric bilateral lesions in white and gray matter
61
Poliomyelomalacia in pigs
A result of selenium toxicosis in pigs. It is when the spinal Grey Matter in the ventral horn softens add the cervical and lumbar intumescence.
Focal and bilateral symmetric
62
What % of brain ischemia cause cell damage
60%
63
Ischemia in brain susceptible regions?
Hippocampus
Punkirje. Cells in cerebellum
Thalami and basal nuclei
64
Perivascular cuffing or inflammation around a blood vessel
Listeria and sheep with polioencephalomalacia and viruses like distemper
65
Reaction patterns For infectious diseases
For bacteria, it’s neutrophils and suppertive abscess
Intracellular bacteria it is pyogranulomatous with neutrophils and macrophages
Viruses it is perivascular cuffing with lymphocytes
Fungi it is pyo granulomatous.
66
Necrotizing meningoencephalitis
In pugs and small dogs, necrosis asymmetrical
67
Necrotizing LuekoEncephalitis
Happens in Yorkshire terriers, and it is the white matter
68
Wallarian degeneration is axon swelling bc of injury or spinal cord cause of compression
Myelin sheath dilate
Spheroid where axon swells
Microglia is gitter cells
69
Cervical stenotic myelopathy
When dynastic YOUNGER c3-c5 the pelvic is worse than the thoracic limbs or
static c5-c7 OLDER 1-5yr pelvic and thoracic limbs are both the same
The sagittal ratio of less than 50
Definitively diagnosed with a milogram
Slow, bone growth, and improve metabolism by giving different diet to increase the width of the spinal canal
Central vertebral fusion that improves 1 to 2 grades
Spinal white matter because it’s what is being compressed mostly
70
Thoracolumbar nephro, spinal cord, tumor of dog
It is an ectopic growth on the spinal cord where it’s kidney cells instead of spinal cord it is in t9 L3
71
Degenerative myelopathy in horses and dogs have different ideology
In horses, it is because of vitamin K deficiency
And dogs it’s all dog disease where the pelvic limbs become weaker with age it happens in the thiracolumbar region
72
Spondylitis is
Secondary to bone infection or tumor expansion. It is on the ventral aspect of the vertebra and its bony proliferation.
73
If you see multiple punctate areas of lysis in a radiograph of a spine
It could be multiple myeloma is a plasma cell tumor from the bone marrow
Or it could be metastatic or secondary tumor, because it is polystotic
74
Chondroid Metaplasia versus fibroid metaplasia
Where does invertible disc herniation occur?
Chondroid Metaplasia goes with a cute invertible disc disease when the nucleus pulposus ruptures
Fibroid metaplasia is with chronic and vertebral disc disease when there still degeneration of the nucleus and annulus fibrosis, but there is no rupture

After T 10
75
Spondylosis deformans vs disco spondylitis
Invertibral disc extrusion
Both are at the end plates of the vertebra
Spondylosis deformans is a proliferation
Disco spondylitis is a lysis, but I can have spondylosis deformans
Invertebral disc extrusion is when the intervertebral space is narrower
76
Which is better for CNS lesions MRI or CT
MRI to look at the soft tissue without mineralization
- flair to suppress csf signal
- stir suppress fat signal
- Fast Field Echo for detecting hemorrhage
CT: bone, lung and abdomen and tumors -oncology
77
Cutaneous trunk region
C8-T1
78
Neuropraxia vs neurotmesis
Where it is transient vs the axon is severed with the supporting structures too (endoneurium and Schwann cells)
79
Symmetric paraparesis common in cats with abnormal Schwann cell function
Diabetic polyneuropathy
80
Diff motor unit disease caused by
Poly neuropathy like polyradiculoneuritis in dogs
Junctionopathy like myasthenia gravis (bad prog with dialated esophagus)
Myopathy
81
Muscular dystrophy
Loss of dystrophin protein, with increased creatine, kinase and poor, prognosis with continued muscle weakness
82
Congenital, myotonia, and dogs and cats
The muscles, hyper trophy in the tongue, or in the body and form a dimple when hit with a hammer
General stiffness
Improves with exercise, unlike other myopathy’s that caused diffuse motor problems
83
Bilateral jaw drop and inability to close mouth With unilateral temporalis atrophy
Unilateral jaw/facial droop + dry lacrimal
Bilateral temporalis atrophy and cant open mouth
Bilateral jaw drop and inability to close mouth With unilateral temporalis atrophy - trigeminal neuritis
Unilateral jaw/facial droop + dry lacrimal - facial nerve
Bilateral temporalis atrophy and cant open mouth - mastication myositis 2M
84
Conductive : Failure of sound transmission - cant get into ear
Sensorineural : Fail to transduce by organ of corti
Cochlear hearing loss
85
Hypothyroidism = associated with
CN 5, 7, 8
86
Laryngeal, adductor, responsory test, or the slap test and horses
When the withers are slapped, and the larynx will twitch and contract
Need an endoscope, but it helps identify vagus, nerve and cervical spinal cords
87
Equine degenerative, Myelencephalopathy
Symmetric hypermetria ataxia, and it’s often worse in the pelvic limbs
It’s because of a lack of vitamin E, that causes problems to the spinal cord and brain stem
White and gray matter 
88
Trevor versus tetany
A tremor will be when a contraction and relaxation is happening back-and-forth BOTULISM
Tetany is going to be when there’s only contraction of the muscles and firing of action potentials TETANY
89
Most common mycosis in the CNS
CRYPTOCOCICUS
90
MYCOSIS :Diagnosis and tx
CRYPTO Cat
Infiltration of mining’s by fungi that passes via cribriform plate
Nasal granduloma and draining tract with Roman nose -sample NOT SX
Cutaneous on skin and pinna
Enlarged lymph nodes
Ocular blindness bc of granduloma in eye
Pulmonary in the lungs
CRYPTO Horse
Pulmonary
Nasal granduloma -SX
Directly see the fungi is ideal but if not
Antigen testing great - done in crypto (serum) , histo and blasto
• histo and blasto (urine) cant be differentiated so can do Antibody test with it
Antibody test is for coccidi
Crypto= fluconazole
Blasto/histo/ coccidio= itraconazole
91
Salt toxicosis causes
Cerebra edema and polioencephalomalacia
Swine, only: perivascular eosinophilic cuffing !!!!!
92
Yellow buckeye Aesculus
Wont cause death no tx
Goose stepping - nuts toxin
93
What forces the brain to herniate Caudalie
Osseous tentorium
94
Infratrochlear n in nasocillary n in ophthalmic n that is CN 5
Infratrochlear n is for dehorning small ruminant
Cornual n of zygomaticotemporal n via zygomatic n. From Maxillary n. is for dehorning bovine
95
Facial nerve via stylomastoid supplies___of tongue and parasympathetic to the__
Facial nerve supplies_rostral 2/3__of tongue and parasympathetic to the_lacrimal gland_
With CN 8 Vestibulococchlear : petrous part of temporal bone
96
Occulomotor n is
Facial n is -
Occulomotor n is to support and open eye (PLR)
Facial n is - to close eye (menance, palpebral)
97
What is the caudal 1/3 of tongue sensory tastes
Glossopharyngeal 9
98
Polioencephalomalacia
Equine leukoencephalomalacia
Enterotoxemia
Poliomalacia of pigs
Thrombotic meningoencephalitis
Grandulomatous meningoencephalitis
Necrotizing meningoencephalitis
Necrotizing leukoencephalitis
99
Toxoplasma
Tigers for Igm high or igg over 2 wk increase
100
Cervical Stenotic myelopathy
Symmetric weakness, ataxia and hypometria in the pelvic and thoracic limbs
– Compression of the upper cervical spinal cord region (C1-C5) causes pelvic limb signs to be one grade worse than thoracic limb signs
– Compression of the lower cervical spinal cord region (C5-C7) causes thoracic limb signs to be the same or worse than the pelvic limb signs
101
Mechanism of neuropathic pain
• Abnormal generation of action potentials by nociceptors
• Decreased threshold for action potentials in first order sensory neurons
• Loss of inhibitory interconnections in the spinal cord or brain
• Activation or attack of the nervous system by immune cells
• CNS sensitization to pain signals
• Abnormal neural pathways
102
Gliomas blend with
Adjacent tissue
Oligodendrocyte or astrocytes
Sensing And Seeing
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