1
Q
Explain social categorization
A
- People tend to place others (and themselves) into social groups
- Beliefs develop about members of these groups
- Used to guide future interactions with group members
2
Q
What are basic social categories?
A
Information which is easily observable for categorization (ex. gender, race, age)
3
Q
What is the function of basic social categories?
A
- The information is used to draw conclusions about a person’s traits, social roles, and physical characteristics
- Important in initial interactions
4
Q
Explain intersectionality/subtypes
A
- People can belong to more than one basic category at once (ex. middle-aged white woman, young asian-american man)
- Subtypes can be created to incorporate intersectionality (can be less/more negative)
5
Q
What is bottom-up processing’s influence on categorization?
A
Categorization based on the observable characteristics of an individual
6
Q
What is top-down processing’s influence on categorization?
A
Categorization based on prior knowledge people have stored in memory and their expectations about interactions
7
Q
Define prototypicality
A
Extent to which physical features match basic social category
8
Q
Explain body cues as bottom-up’s influences on social categorization
A
- Body size and motion provide cues about group membership
- Ex, body shape as a primary cue for biological sex (women have narrower waists and smaller shoulder width than men)
9
Q
Explain the categorization of ambiguous faces (bottom-up influences)
A
- When cues are ambiguous, categorization is slower
- We tend to classify ambiguous faces as members of the minority or socially subordinate group
- These perceptions continue until the majority of their features are stereotypically white
10
Q
Explain stereotypes as top-down’s influences on social categorization
A
The content of stereotypes that people have can affect categorisation (ex. gender-atypical vs typical characteristics observed in faces are used to infer sexual orientation (Freeman et al., 2010))
10
Q
Explain situational influence as top-down’s influences on social categorisation
A
- The social context can influence categorisation
- Focus on what makes another person look “different” may shift across varying contexts
10
Q
Explain prejudices attitudes as top-down’s influences on social categorisation
A
- Prejudiced individuals pay more attention to characteristics consistent with their attitudes and stereotypic beliefs
Examples:
- Racist attitudes = focus on race when categorising
- Sexist attitudes = focus on gender when categorising
11
Q
Name examples of where people learn stereotypes from
A
- Parents
- Peers
- The media
- Their own observations of the world
- Role models
- Development/socialization
12
Q
What are the psychological processes that form stereotypes?
A
- Social Role Theory
- Illusory Correlations
13
Q
Explain the Social Role Theory
A
- People observe the social roles that others occupy -> They associate characteristics of the role with those who occupy it
- Associated with Correspondence Bias
14
Q
Explain the Illusory Correlation
A
- People incorrectly link two characteristics
- They overestimate the relationship between two categories when undesirable information stands out
- Inaccurate associations become firmly held
- Based on inaccurate information processing, APE model & Associative Learning
15
Q
What is the media’s influence on stereotypes?
A
- The media exposes us to members of majority groups more than minority groups
- Representations of minority groups are stereotypic and negative
- The more media people are exposed to , the more they hold stereotypic beliefs (ex. Race, gender, body size)
16
Q
What is advertising’s influence on gender stereotypes?
A
- Women are typically shown in the home (engage in behaviours that convey their dependence and stereotypical gender roles)
- Men are typically shown in professional roles
17
Q
Define stereotype knowledge
A
Extent to which a person is familiar with the content of a stereotype
18
Q
Define stereotype endorsement
A
Extent to which someone is personally believes the societal stereotype accurately describes a social group
19
Q
Define stereotype activation
A
Extent to which a stereotype is accessible in one’s mind
20
Q
Define stereotype application
A
Extent to which one uses a stereotype to judge a member of the stereotyped group
21
Q
Explain the activation-application process of stereotypes
A
- Encounter member of stereotyped group
- Stereotype activation
*Low cognitive load -> Activated
*High cognitive load -> Inhibited - Stereotype application, if stereotype activated
* Low cognitive load -> Inhibited
*High cognitive load -> Applied - Stereotype application, if stereotype activation inhibited -> Stereotype application not possible
22
Q
Describe the progression from categorisation to activation
A
- Rapid
- Automatic -> happens without effort
- Often unconscious -> cues presented subliminally can activate stereotypes
23
What are the factors that can facilitate activation?
- Prototypicality
- Situational context
- Level of prejudice
24
Explain intersectional "invisibility"
People with intersectional identities are less likely to be recognised as a prototypical member of either identity (ex. Black women are not seen as prototypical of either women or Black people)
25
What are the advantages of intersectional "invisibility"?
- Stereotypes that are not activated are not used
- May explain why Black women typically experience less discrimination than Black men
26
What are the disadvantages of intersectional "invisibility"?
- People who are not seen are also not heard
- May make "dual identities" feel more stigmatised
27
Explain how it feels for minorities that are dual-stereotyped or stigmatised identities
- Often more worried about experiencing discrimination
- Have less allies or role models in many contexts?
Referred to as 'double jeopardy'
28
What factors promote automaticity?
1. Situational context
*Context influences if stereotypes are activated (environment, time of day)
2. Timing
*When we are pressed for time, we tend to rely on stereotypes BUT when we are given time to respond, stereotypes may not be activated
29
Explain cognitive busyness
When we are busy with one mental task while trying to do another
30
What is the importance of working memory
- Lack of space in working memory disrupts stereotype activation (ex. Cognitively busy people who see an Asian woman use fewer stereotypical words during sentence completion task)
31
Explain how stereotype activation influences application
- Activated stereotypes are likely to be applied
- Stereotype application is the typically default option
- UNLESS a person is motivated and able to inhibit a stereotype (internal or external motivations)
32
Explain how stereotype activation influences behavior
- Spreading activation triggers behavioural scripts
- Easily accessible information requires less effort (brain is lazy)
33
Explain how cognitive busyness influences stereotype activation-application
- Cognitive busyness inhibits stereotype activation
- Lack of space in working memory disrupts stereotype activation
- But if activated, cognitive busyness facilitates stereotype application
34
Explain the following finding from Gilbert & Hixon (1991):
Those who engaged working memory during "activation phase" were less likely to complete words stereotypically
- Stereotypes are likely to occupy working memory
- Working memory has limited capacity so if engaged, stereotypes are unlikely to be activated
35
Explain the following finding from Gilbert & Hixon (1991):
Those who engaged working memory during "application phase" were more likely to use stereotypes to describe the researcher
- Working memory is needed to inhibit application
- Working memory has limited capacity so if it is occupied, stereotypes are likely to be applied
36
Explain the weapons identification task (Payne, 2001)
- Sort guns vs tools
- Primed with Black vs White faces
- Incongruent pairings are harder to recognise (black-tool; white-gun)
37
Explain the loss of control in suppressing stereotype application
- Suppressing application of stereotypes requires self-control
- When resources are unavailable, people may express stereotypes; Resource vs Process models of self-control
- However, suppressing behaviour is difficult especially when the underlying attitudes are strongly influencing behaviour -> Application may "leak out" through nonverbal behaviours when trying to control its effects on others behaviours
38
How does timing influence stereotypes?
- When we are pressed for time, we tend to rely on stereotypes
- When given time, we can engage self-control to stop application
39
How does ambiguity influence stereotypes?
- When the situation is unclear, we tend to rely on stereotypes (ex. application more likely at night)
40
How does myopia promote stereotype application?
- Behaviour based immediate, readily available information
- Long-term consequences not considered
- Promotes self-preservation
41
What triggers myopia?
- Tiredness/stress
- Alcohol (cues alone)
42
How do we measure activation and application?
- Difficult to disentangle
- Activation = cognitive processes
- Application = observed behaviours
43
Explain the Shooter Bias task
- Participants are presented with a scene
- Some scenes contain people
*Black vs White
*Holding either a gun or a tool
- Ps make a choice whether to "shoot" the target
44
How do behavioural tasks show stereotypes?
- Behavioural tasks often activate stereotypes via primes
- Activated stereotypes (associations in memory) differ in their strength
- Whether we apply these activated stereotypes (regardless of strength) relies on controlled vs automatic processes
45
How do controlled and automatic processes influence stereotypes?
- Controlled processes = engaging inhibition to reduce application
- Automatic processes = strength of activated stereotypes on behaviour
46
Explain automaticity vs control, when the strength of activated stereotypes are strong
- Increased control needed to suppress application
- Availability (and willingness) to engage control depends on context and individual differences (e.g. motivations)
47
Explain automaticity vs control, when the strength of activated stereotypes are weak
- Little control is needed to suppress application
- We may not apply the stereotypes even when control is limited
48
Based on Petzel et al. (2022), how do alcohol-related cues promote myopia?
Stronger influence of automatic processes (activated stereotypes)
49
Based on Petzel et al. (2022) how do we inhibit enhanced automaticity?
- We can inhibit enhanced automaticity via control
- Under normal circumstances
- When control is diminished via ego-depletion, automaticity leads to greater application of stereotypes promoted by alcohol myopia
50
PSY2003
flashcards
Decks in class (10)
# Cards
-
Contemporary Methods And Issues24
-
Evolution of Social Psychology7
-
Social Cognition and the Self49
-
Attitudes and Norms31
-
Social Identity and Intergroup Relations26
-
Stereotype Activation vs Application52
-
Strategies to Reduce Bias39
-
Social Influences on Health39
-
Social Neuroscience26
-
Prosocial Behaviour and Altruism52
