1
Q
What is sensation?
A
Stimulus detection
Our sense organs translate environmental stimuli into nerve impulses.
2
Q
What is perception?
A
Making sense of what our senses tell us
Organizing the stimulus input and giving it meaning.
3
Q
Define transduction.
A
Characteristics of the stimulus are converted into nerve impulses
There are more than just 5 senses: balance, temp/pain/pressure & immune system are all sensory systems.
4
Q
What is synesthesia?
A
Condition in which the brain mixes up senses
Example: Sounds have colors.
5
Q
Who is known as the father of psychophysics?
A
Fechner
Psychophysics studies the relation between physical stimulus and physiological response.
6
Q
What is the absolute threshold?
A
Lowest intensity at which a stimulus can be detected 50% of the time
Varies depending on fatigue, expectations, etc.
7
Q
What does signal detection theory state?
A
Situational factors can influence sensory judgments
Lower threshold means better sense.
8
Q
What is the difference threshold?
A
Smallest difference between two stimuli that can be detected 50% of the time
Also known as Just Noticeable Difference (JND).
9
Q
State Weber’s law.
A
Difference threshold is proportional to magnitude of stimulus
Breaks down at extremely high and low intensities.
10
Q
What is Fechner’s Law?
A
S = k log(I)
Sensation increases with the logarithm of intensity.
11
Q
What is Steven’s Power Law?
A
S = k log(I)n
More predictive across a variety of sensations.
12
Q
Define sensory adaptation.
A
Reducing sensitivity to a constant stimulus
This is why a concert seems painfully loud when you walk in but normal by the end.
13
Q
What is subliminal perception?
A
Perception below the absolute threshold
No evidence that subliminal stimuli influence consumer behavior.
14
Q
What is the function of the cornea?
A
Focuses the light
It is the outer layer of the eye.
15
Q
What is the role of the pupil?
A
Contracted by the Iris
It regulates the amount of light entering the eye.
16
Q
What does the lens do?
A
Fine tuning of focus
A lens that is too long causes myopia (nearsightedness).
17
Q
What is the retina?
A
Lines the back of the eye
Contains many layers and is crucial for vision.
18
Q
What is dark adaptation?
A
Progressive improvement to light sensitivity under low illumination
Cones reach max adaptation in 10 mins; rods regenerate slower but become more sensitive.
19
Q
What is color-deficient vision?
A
Dichromat - color blind to one of RG or BY; Monochromat - sensitive only to BW
Refers to different types of color blindness.
20
Q
What does frequency refer to in hearing?
A
Number of sound waves per second (Hz)
Frequency determines pitch.
21
Q
What is the amplitude of sound?
A
Vertical size of the waves (db)
Amplitude determines loudness.
22
Q
What is conductive deafness?
A
Problems with the mechanical system that transmits waves to the cochlea
Hearing aids can help with this type of deafness.
23
Q
What are taste buds?
A
Chemical receptors concentrated along the edges and back of the tongue
Each is more responsive to one or two basic taste qualities.
24
Q
What is the olfactory bulb?
A
Forebrain structure above the nasal cavity
Specific odors excite specific portions of it.
25
What does the **gate control theory** explain?
Pain results from the opening and closing of gating mechanisms in the nervous system
## Footnote
These gates can be closed by physical or brain activity.
26
Define **kinesthesis**.
Info about position of muscles, joints, and movements
## Footnote
It helps in understanding body position.
27
What is **bottom-up processing**?
Individual elements of the stimulus are combined into unified perception
## Footnote
It contrasts with top-down processing.
28
What is **top-down processing**?
Sensory info interpreted in light of existing knowledge, concepts, ideas
## Footnote
Pioneered by Gestalt psychology.
29
What are **endorphins**?
Natural painkillers that inhibit pain neurotransmitters
## Footnote
Endorphins are released in response to stress or pain.
30
Define **kinesthesis**.
Information about position of muscles, joints, and movements
## Footnote
Kinesthesis helps in body awareness during movement.
31
What does the **vestibular sense** refer to?
Body orientation or equilibrium (inner ear fluid)
## Footnote
It plays a crucial role in balance.
32
What is **bottom-up processing**?
Individual elements of the stimulus are combined into a unified perception
## Footnote
This process starts with sensory input.
33
What is **top-down processing**?
Sensory info interpreted in light of existing knowledge, concepts, ideas
## Footnote
This approach is influenced by prior experiences.
34
What are the two components of **attention**?
* Focusing on certain stimuli
* Filtering out other incoming info
## Footnote
Attention is essential for perception.
35
What is **shadowing** in attention studies?
Playing a different message in either ear; repeating words from one ear while ignoring the other
## Footnote
It demonstrates selective attention.
36
Define **inattention blindness**.
Looking at something without 'seeing' it if attention is focused elsewhere
## Footnote
This phenomenon illustrates the limits of attention.
37
What are **figure-ground relations**?
Organizing stimuli into foreground and background
## Footnote
The central figure has a more distinct shape.
38
List the **Gestalt Laws of Perceptual Organization**.
* Similarity
* Proximity
* Closure
* Continuity
## Footnote
These laws explain how we group stimuli.
39
What is a **perceptual schema**?
A mental image to compare a perception with for recognition
## Footnote
It helps in interpreting sensory information.
40
Define **perceptual set**.
Readiness to perceive stimuli in a particular way
## Footnote
Influences how we interpret new information.
41
What are **perceptual constancies**?
* Shape constancy
* Brightness constancy
* Size constancy
## Footnote
These allow recognition of familiar stimuli under varying conditions.
42
What are **monocular depth cues**?
* Light and shadow
* Linear perspective
* Interposition/overlap
* Height in horizontal plane
* Texture gradient
* Clarity
* Relative size
* Motion parallax
## Footnote
These cues help detect depth with one eye.
43
What are **binocular depth cues**?
* Binocular/retinal disparity
* Convergence
## Footnote
These require two eyes to perceive depth.
44
What is **stroboscopic movement**?
Illusion of movement when lights are flashed nearby each other milliseconds apart
## Footnote
This effect is often seen in theater marquees.
45
What is a **critical period**?
Certain experiences must happen in this time for normal brain development
## Footnote
It highlights the importance of timely experiences.
46
What is a **deprivation experiment**?
Test critical periods by observing effects of lack of certain stimuli
## Footnote
Example: Cats raised without vertical lines couldn't see vertical patterns.
47
What is the role of **culture and experience** in perception?
They significantly influence how we perceive stimuli
## Footnote
People from different environments may interpret illusions differently.
48
What do **constructionists** believe about perception?
We create meaning from basic elements or features (bottom up)
## Footnote
They emphasize building larger units from smaller components.
49
What is **consciousness**?
Moment-to-moment awareness of ourselves and our environment
## Footnote
It is subjective, dynamic, and self-reflective.
50
What are the three levels of consciousness according to the **psychodynamic perspective**?
* Conscious
* Preconscious
* Subconscious
## Footnote
Each level has different accessibility to thoughts and urges.
51
What is **daydreaming**?
Occurs every 90 minutes, alters mood positively, and helps in problem-solving
## Footnote
It is a low-risk way to deal with issues.
52
Define **circadian rhythms**.
Daily temperature, hormone, and body function rhythms
## Footnote
They regulate various physiological processes.
53
What is the function of the **suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN)**?
Regulates circadian rhythms in the hypothalamus
## Footnote
It acts as the brain's clock.
54
What is **melatonin**?
Hormone secreted by the pineal gland that has a relaxing effect
## Footnote
It helps regulate sleep-wake cycles.
55
What is **seasonal affective disorder**?
Tendency to become depressed during certain months due to less sunlight
## Footnote
It is linked to melatonin levels.
56
What is **insomnia**?
Chronic difficulty in falling asleep, staying asleep, or having restful sleep
## Footnote
It can occur even if one falls asleep easily.
57
What is **narcolepsy**?
Extreme daytime sleepiness and sudden, uncontrollable sleep attacks
## Footnote
It can include cataplexy, where muscle weakness occurs.
58
What is **sleep apnea**?
Interruption in breathing during sleep
## Footnote
It can lead to severe insomnia and is sometimes linked to Sudden Infant Death (SID).
59
What are **nightmares**?
Frightening dreams that can be correlated with significant stress
## Footnote
They are more common in children and can be linked to psychopathology in adults.
60
What is the **activation-synthesis theory** of dreaming?
Dreams are the brain making sense of random neural activity
## Footnote
This theory suggests dreams serve no function.
61
What are **depressants**?
Drugs that decrease nervous system activity and reduce anxiety
## Footnote
Examples include alcohol and barbiturates.
62
What are **stimulants**?
Drugs that increase neural firing and arouse the nervous system
## Footnote
Examples include amphetamines and cocaine.
63
What are **opiates**?
Drugs like morphine, codeine, and heroin
## Footnote
They are used for pain relief but can lead to addiction.
64
What are the effects of **Meth** on the body?
* Insomnia
* Hyperactivity
* Anxiety
* Paranoia
* Meth mouth
* Heart attack
## Footnote
Methamphetamine use can lead to severe physical and psychological health issues.
65
What are the long-term effects of **MDMA/ecstasy**?
* Cognitive impairment
* Sleep disturbance
* Sexual dysfunction
* Impaired immune responses
* Depletion of serotonin
* Linked with suicidal depression and death
## Footnote
MDMA affects serotonin levels significantly, impacting mood and cognition.
66
What is the primary action of **Cocaine** on neurotransmitters?
* Blocks reuptake of norepinephrine (NE) and dopamine
## Footnote
Cocaine leads to feelings of euphoria and muscular strength but can cause severe side effects at high doses.
67
What are the effects of **Opiates** like morphine and heroin?
* Pain relief
* Mood changes
* Increased endorphins and dopamine
* Risk of death
## Footnote
Heroin was originally used as a cough suppressant and can cause peaceful euphoria.
68
What are the effects of **Hallucinogens** such as LSD?
* Hearing colors
* Seeing sounds
* Violent outbursts
* Panic
* Flashbacks
## Footnote
The mechanisms of how hallucinogens work are not well understood.
69
What does **Marijuana** do in the brain?
* Binds to receptors
* Increases GABA and dopamine
## Footnote
THC is the active component, and marijuana is difficult to classify due to its varied effects.
70
What factors determine **drug effects**?
* Genetics
* Learning from parents
* Setting and social environment
* Cultural learning
* Expectancies
* Personality
## Footnote
These factors can significantly influence an individual's experience with drugs.
71
True or false: You can be hypnotized against your own will.
FALSE
## Footnote
Hypnosis requires the subject's willingness and susceptibility.
72
What is **hypnosis** named after?
Anton Mesmer
## Footnote
Mesmer introduced the concept of animal magnetism for therapeutic purposes.
73
What is **habituation**?
Decrease in response strength to a repeated stimulus
## Footnote
It is a learning process that saves energy and attention.
74
What is the difference between **habituation** and **sensitization**?
* Habituation: decrease in response
* Sensitization: increase in response
## Footnote
Habituation occurs in the central nervous system, while sensitization is a heightened response to stimuli.
75
What does **behaviorism** focus on?
Stimulus & response
## Footnote
It emphasizes observable events and behaviors rather than internal processes.
76
What is **classical conditioning**?
Association of a neutral stimulus with one that consistently elicits a response
## Footnote
It involves learning through the pairing of stimuli.
77
What are the steps in **classical conditioning**?
* Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) → Unconditioned response (UCR)
* Pair conditioned stimulus (CS) with UCS
* Conditioned stimulus (CS) → Conditioned response (CR)
## Footnote
The UCR and CR are similar but caused by different stimuli.
78
What is **extinction** in classical conditioning?
CS presented without UCS repeatedly
## Footnote
This process breaks the association learned during conditioning.
79
What is **spontaneous recovery**?
Reappearance of CR after a rest period without new learning
## Footnote
The new CR is typically weaker than the original.
80
What is **stimulus generalization**?
Similar CS causes the CR
## Footnote
It has survival functions, allowing responses to similar stimuli.
81
What is **operant conditioning**?
Learning through voluntary responses and consequences
## Footnote
It differs from classical conditioning, which involves involuntary responses.
82
What is **Thorndike’s Law of Effect**?
Responses followed by satisfying consequences become more likely
## Footnote
It forms the basis for understanding operant conditioning.
83
What are the types of **reinforcement**?
* Positive reinforcement
* Negative reinforcement
* Operant extinction
* Positive punishment
* Negative punishment
## Footnote
Each type influences behavior differently.
84
What is **shaping** in operant conditioning?
Reinforcing successive approximations toward a final response
## Footnote
It is used to teach complex behaviors gradually.
85
What is **chaining** in operant conditioning?
Reward each response with the opportunity to perform the next response
## Footnote
It links behaviors together to form a sequence.
86
What is the difference between **primary** and **secondary reinforcers**?
* Primary: satisfy biological needs (food, water)
* Secondary: associated with primary reinforcers ($$, grades)
## Footnote
Secondary reinforcers gain their value through association.
87
What is the **difference** between **operant generalization** and **operant discrimination**?
* Operant generalization: child learns not to touch his own stove; doesn’t touch all stoves
* Operant discrimination: child learns to only raid cookie jar when parents aren’t home
## Footnote
Operant response occurs to one antecedent but not another.
88
What is **stimulus control** in the context of operant conditioning?
When discriminative stimuli influence behavior
## Footnote
Example: police cars exert stimulus control over people’s driving.
89
What are the two types of **reinforcement schedules**?
* Continuous reinforcement schedule
* Partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule
## Footnote
Continuous reinforcement produces rapid learning but extinguishes faster.
90
What is a **fixed-ratio schedule** in operant conditioning?
Reinforcement occurs after a fixed number of responses (e.g., after 3 lever presses you get food)
## Footnote
Produces high response rates and is commonly used in workplaces.
91
What is the **partial reinforcement effect**?
Experience with extinction maintains responding because reinforcement is unpredictable
## Footnote
Example: slot machines.
92
What is **learned taste aversion**?
Pairing smell or taste with toxin so that the taste/smell now repulses you
## Footnote
Animals show taste aversion even when food and illness are hours or days apart.
93
What is **instinctive drift**?
Drifting back to instinctive behavior despite conditioning
## Footnote
Example: chickens chasing a ball thinking it is food.
94
What are the **three components of memory**?
* Encoding (acquisition)
* Storage (retention)
* Decoding (retrieval)
## Footnote
These components describe how information is processed and recalled.
95
What is the **magic number** for short-term memory capacity?
7±2
## Footnote
This refers to the number of meaningful items that can be held in short-term memory.
96
What is the difference between **maintenance rehearsal** and **elaborative rehearsal**?
* Maintenance rehearsal: repeating information for short-term retention
* Elaborative rehearsal: focusing on meaning for long-term retention
## Footnote
Elaborative rehearsal is more effective for transferring information to long-term memory.
97
What is the **serial position effect**?
It is easier to remember first and last items in a list
## Footnote
Combination of primacy effect and recency effect.
98
What is **effortful processing**?
Rehearsing, making lists, and taking class notes
## Footnote
This type of processing is often required for studying and retaining information.
99
What is **semantic encoding**?
How the word means (does it make sense here)
## Footnote
This type of encoding is crucial for long-term memory retention.
100
What is the role of the **amygdala** in learning?
Responsible for fear conditioning (predicting danger)
## Footnote
Overactivity in the amygdala can lead to misdirected fear responses, such as PTSD.
101
What is **observational learning**?
Learning by watching models and learning from them
## Footnote
This type of learning does not involve direct conditioning.
102
What is **escape conditioning**?
Organisms learn a response to terminate an aversive stimulus
## Footnote
Example: putting on a sweater to escape cold.
103
What is **avoidance conditioning**?
Organism learns to completely avoid an aversive stimulus
## Footnote
Example: putting on a sweater before going outside.
104
What are the **three types of encoding**?
* Structural encoding
* Phonological/phonemic encoding
* Semantic encoding
## Footnote
These types of encoding relate to how we process information based on appearance, sound, and meaning.
105
True or false: **Shallow processing** can lead to long-term memory retention.
FALSE
## Footnote
Deep processing is necessary for better memory retention.
106
What is **chunking** in memory strategies?
Organizing info into smaller meaningful chunks
## Footnote
Example: Phone numbers are often chunked into parts for easier recall.
107
What does the **dual coding theory** suggest?
Coding using both verbal and non-verbal cues enhances memory
## Footnote
This increases the likelihood that one of the cues will be available for recall.
108
Define **schema**.
Mental frameworks that organize concepts
## Footnote
Schemas create a readiness to perceive information in a certain way.
109
What is the **associative network** model of memory?
Memory is a massive network of associated ideas and concepts
## Footnote
Related nodes are closer together in this semantic network.
110
What are the **types of long-term memory**?
* Declarative memory
* Episodic memory
* Semantic memory
* Procedural memory
## Footnote
Each type serves different functions in memory storage and retrieval.
111
What is the difference between **explicit** and **implicit memory**?
* Explicit memory: conscious and intentional retrieval
* Implicit memory: unconsciously influences behavior
## Footnote
Explicit memory includes recognition and recall, while implicit memory includes skills and conditioned responses.
112
What is the **retrieval cue**?
An internal/external factor that stimulates information in LTM
## Footnote
Multiple self-generated cues enhance memory retrieval.
113
What is **distinctiveness** in memory?
Easier to remember if something is distinct from surrounding stimuli
## Footnote
Unique events like weddings or vacations are easier to recall.
114
What are **flashbulb memories**?
Vivid, clear snapshots of memories of significant events
## Footnote
Despite their clarity, they are not always accurate.
115
What does the **encoding specificity principle** state?
Memory is enhanced when retrieval conditions match encoding conditions
## Footnote
Context-dependent and state-dependent memories illustrate this principle.
116
What is **proactive interference**?
Material learned in the past interferes with recall of newer material
## Footnote
Example: Old phone number makes it hard to remember a new one.
117
What is **retrograde amnesia**?
Inability to remember events prior to the onset of amnesia
## Footnote
This condition affects memories formed before the trauma.
118
What is **Alzheimer's disease** characterized by?
* Forgetfulness
* Poor judgement
* Confusion
* Disorientation
## Footnote
It is the most common form of dementia, especially in those over 65.
119
What is the **keyword method** in memory improvement?
Linking a highly visual image with a new concept
## Footnote
This technique enhances recall by creating strong associations.
120
What is **childhood amnesia**?
Inability to remember events from infancy
## Footnote
This may be due to shallow encoding or lack of self-concept in infants.
121
What is the **misinformation effect**?
Distortion of memory due to misleading post-event information
## Footnote
The wording of questions can influence how events are remembered.
122
What is **source confusion**?
Recognizing something as familiar but not knowing where it was encountered
## Footnote
This can lead to incorrect memories, especially in eyewitness accounts.
123
What is the role of the **hippocampus** in memory?
Helps convert short-term memory into long-term memory
## Footnote
It is crucial for memory consolidation.
124
What is **Ebbinghaus** known for in memory studies?
Studied relearning and savings percentage using nonsense syllables
## Footnote
His work laid foundational concepts in memory research.
125
What is the **decay theory**?
Physical memory trace fades away with time and disuse
## Footnote
This theory is debated due to inconsistencies in memory retention over time.
126
What is the **method of loci**?
Imagining a distinct environment to link items you want to remember
## Footnote
This technique enhances memory through spatial associations.
psych 1002/3
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