Piaget’s sensorimotor stage (6 substages)
Substage 1: Reflexes
- birth to 1 month
- reactions are reflexive in nature
- baby grasps toy when you place it in their palms
Substage 2: Primary circular reasoning
- 1 to 4 months
- concerned with actions relating to the infant
- ex, sucking on thumb
Substage 3: Secondary circular reasoning
- 4 to 8 months
- interested in the manipulation of objects in the environment
- baby tugs at toy, gets a reaction, and does it again (intentionality)
Substage 4: Coordination of secondary reactions
- 8 to 12 months
- purposeful behaviour
- combination of two secondary circular reasoning actions
- pushes something out of the way to get to the toy
- beginning of object permanence
- A-not-B error (perseverating search)
- beginning of imitation which is the crossover from sensorimotor behaviour to intelligence
Substage 5: Tertiary circular reactions
- 12 to 18 months
- explores new methods of meeting a challenge
- plays with another toy to gain reaction
- they conduct ‘experiments’
- show originality in problem solving and use trial-and-error to find the best way to reach a goal
- still have certain problems with object permanence when it comes to invisible displacement: if you hold a toy in your hand, put your hand under a pillow and then withdraw your hand without the toy, they will search for the toy in your hand
Substage 6: Mental representation
- 18-24 months
- can use mental symbols such as sounds, words and images to represent objects or actions
- less trial-and-error with behaviour
- child knows there are toys in the toy box, and will crawl towards it to retrieve toys
- fully developed object permanence
- deferred imitation (imitates father’s phone call the day after)
- enhances pretend play where children enact daily activities
- important implications for symbolic representation such as language, categorising and numbering skills
Infancy: Phases of language development
- receptive language (understanding language) precedes productive language (the ability to speak it)
- Undifferentiated crying: 0-1 month
- unable to distinguish why the baby is crying
- crying exclusively as a signal of their needs
- listener is unable to distinguish whether babies are crying because they are hungry, thirsty, frightened, uncomfortable, or in pain - Differentiated crying: 2 months
- parents can distinguish between cries
- babies use different pitches and sound patterns to indicate their different needs - Cooing and babbling (2-5 months)
- cooing refers to squealing-gurgling sounds babies make when they’re satisfied
- babbling refers to simple repitition of consonant or vowel sounds, for example ‘da-da-da-da’
- even deaf babies babble - Lallation: 7-8 months
- repeat sounds they have heard, but incorrectly and accidentally - Echolalia: 9-10 months
- repetition of sounds they heard, but correctly and deliberately - Single-word sentences: 1 year
- speaks an intelligible word with meaning
- holophrastic: uses one word to convey multiple meanings - Full sentences: 21 months
- progresses from single words to full sentences
- between the ages of 12-18 months, the learning of words is relatively slow because children link words to specific contexts
- between the ages of 16-18 a vocabulary spurt occurs (50 words at 16 months to 320 words at 24 months)
- words learnt tend to be nouns, and the learning of verbs follows later on
- delayed speech and language acquisition has been linked to an increased risk of learning disabilities, reading difficulties, academic underachievement, and lower IQ scores in later childhood as well as adulthood
Personality development (O-C-E-A-N)
Openness
- the depth and complexity of a person’s intellectual experience of life
- artistic, imaginative, insightful, original
Conscientiousness
- how well a person can control their impulses, versus irresponsibility
- organised, reliable, good in the delay of gratification
Extraversion
- How regularly a person engages in the world, versus avoidance of social experiences
- active, assertive, talkative, outgoing
Agreeableness
- a person’s warmth and compassion towards others
- affectionate
- forgiving
- sympathetic
- generous
Neuroticism
- whether the person views the world as distressful, versus emotional stability
- anxious, self-deprecating, oversensitive, emotionally unstable, worried
The development of emotions during infancy
- differentiate at the age of six month, and at the age of nine months, babies experience all basic emotions: joy, surprise, sadness, disgust, anger and fear
- self-conscious emotions develops between 15-24 months after they gain self-awareness: empathy, embarrassment, jealousy
- empathy is dependent on social cognition
- at the end of the second year they gain self-evaluative emotions: pride, shame, guilt
- they express their emotions mainly through smiling and crying
the smile
- initially reflexive and involuntary, occurs during REM sleep
- 3 months: non-selective social smile, in response to familiar faces, pleasant stimuli,
- selective social smile: become increasingly reserved for interactions with familiar people
- babies begin to laugh at 4 months
crying
- the basic cry (hunger cry): rhythmical sequence of a vocalisation, a pause, intake of air and another pause
- the angry cry: extra air is forced through the vocal cords during the vocalisation segment of the basic cry
- the pain cry: produce a longer vocalisation followed by an even longer silence as they hold their breath and then gasp
- there is evidence linking excessive crying in babies with adaptive problems in preschool and behavioural problems such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in later childhood
Infants’ development of self-concept
- the unique set of traits and characteristics individuals consider true about themelves
- people’s overarching views of themselves
- subjective self: the “I” and feeling that “I exist”
- objective self: qualities that are known objectively, such as physical characteristics, temperament and social skills
- emotional self: ability to understand and regulate emotions
- linked to cognitive development
- develops faster in individualistic cultures
Contributing factors:
- Self-agency: infants recognise that their actions result in the predictable reactions of other people and objects. First step in the development of the subjective self. Related to self-efficacy
- Self-recognition: recognise themselves in a photo or in the mirror. 15-18 months. Can distinguish themselves from others
- Self-description: 18-30 months. Development of the objective self
- Emotional self-awareness: increasing understanding of their own emotions and the emotions of others. Develops in accordance with emotional development
- Development of object permanence (9-12 months): awareness of themselves of separate entities
Infants’ social development
- Attachment refers to the strong emotional bonding that takes place between children, especially infants, and their primary caregivers.
- Freud believed infants become attached to persons who provide oral satisfaction
- Erikson believed that the first year of life - the trust vs mistrust stage - is the key period in which attachment is formed
- a sense of trust requires a feeling of physical comfort and a minimal amount of fear and apprehension
- responsive, sensitive parenting sets the stage for infants’ development of trust, and therefore attachment bonds
Work of Harry Harlow
- the hunger drive plays a small role in the development of attachment (survival)
- rather, the provision of comfort and security is the main reason for attachment development (psychological)
Stages of attachment development John Bowlby
1. the pre attachment phase: 2-3 months. Reaction to strangers and caregivers are the same
2. The attachment-in-the-making phase: 3-6 months. Greater degree of attachment to primary caregiver, interact with them more easily and often than with strangers. Separation anxiety starts to form
3. The phase of clear-cut attachment: 6 months - 2 years. Attachment to primary caregiver is clear, and they try to be in close proximity to their caregiver. Separation anxiety is clearly visible. Child is able to develop attachments to other people
4. Formation of reciprocal relationship: from 2 years onwards. Attachment between child and caregiver is more complex (cognitive, social and emotional development). Baby tries to influence the behaviour of the caregiver to make them more responsive to their needs
Types of Attachment Mary Ainsworth
1. Secure attachment: feel safe when with mother, and distressed when they’re gone
2. Avoidant attachment: no reaction when mother leaves, and ignores them when they return
3. Ambivalent attachment: they are anxious even before the mother leaves. When she returns they try to make contact, but also avoid her
4. Disorganised (disoriented) attachment: contradictory behaviour, with a fear to connect with parents and caregivers
Theories on language development
Learning theory
- Operant conditioning: reinforced sounds and words are kept and refined, sounds that aren’t reinforced fade with time
- Imitation: they imitate the speech of adults
Social pragmatism
- social stimuli, and not explicit learning is involved in the learning of language
- language takes place, not due to imitation, but because of its practical value in social situations
- infants communicate because they are social creatures and dependent on others for their survival
- the emotional messages of language are more important than the words
- although the ability to produce language is a basic drive, the motivation is not only to speak, but to converse
nativist approach
- everyone is born with the innate ability to acquire language
- they acknowledge the role played by the learning process, but it is considered subordinate to innate ability
- the systemic development of language is linked to biological maturation
- centres on what Chomsky called the Language Acquisition Device, a constellation of interconnecting brain areas present since birth and dependent on the maturation of cells in the cerebral cortex
- this mechanism is responsible for the fact that people can produce and understand an infinite number of sentences
- they only learn the basic elements of their mother tongue
- Knowledge of the universal elements of language are present since birth. All languages have syntactical elements such as subject and object; interrogative sentences and statement sentences; imperatives; negatives; and active and passive forms
- stresses the existence of sensitive and optimal periods during which a language is acquired more easily and quickly
Integrated approach
- learning theory offers the best explanation of how sounds, words and meanings are learnt
- social pragmatism explains the enhancement of social interaction
- nativism provides a better explanation of the creative aspect of language ability
- children are born with an innate ability to learn a language, while learning and experience activate and reinforce this ability
Infancy: Theories on personality development
Psychoanalytical perspective
Freud:
- Oral and Anal stage
- a mother’s handling of feeding, weaning, and toileting issues during these psychosexual developmental stages could have long-term effects on the development of her child
Erikson
- Basic trust vs Mistrust (0-2 years)
- Autonomy vs Shame and doubt (2-3 years)
- if parents are overprotective during the active phase of independence, it can negatively affect their extraversion, openness
Emotional communication and regulation during infancy
Emotional communication
- a baby’s cry or smile is one of the first social actions and it usually stimulates a two-way communication process
- at 3 months, they start to react to the facial expressions of others, indicating an ability to read other’s emotions
- start to make use of social referencing at 9-18 months; they actively seek approval or disapproval for their actions from people they trust
- indication of their growing realisation that others have mental states (feelings and thoughts)
- social referencing plays a significant role in the indirect learning of behaviour
Emotional regulation
- refers to children’s ability to control or regulate their emotions, behaviour and cognitions (thoughts) in ways that are beneficial to their functioning and adaptive to circumstances in which they find themselves
- emotions such as fear, anxiety and anger often require emotional regulation
- 6 months: turn their bodies away from distressing stimuli
- 12 months: self soothing (thumb sucking, carrying their favourite blanket) and distraction (chewing on objects, playing with toys)
- 18 months: distraction and active attempts to change the situation, such as moving away from upsetting stimuli
- 18-24 months: adjust emotional reactions to a comfortable level by distracting themselves, such as playing with a toy or talking
- this development is influenced by the development of the cerebral cortex, leading to better inhibition of impulsivity
- caregivers play a vital role is helping infants to learn how to regulate their emotions
- when caregivers fail to regulate stressful experiences for babies who cannot yet regulate them for themselves, brain structures that buffer stress may fail to develop properly, resulting in anxious, reactive temperaments
- the growth of emotional regulation is part of developing capabilities that are related to social competence and behavioural self-control
- better self-regulation skills in early childhood are associated with better social skills across the life span, better teacher-child relationships, better academic outcomes, better mental health, less risk-taking in adolescence, and long term health and employment prospects
Temperamental patterns (Thomas and Chess)
- work of Thomas and Chess
- temperament refers to the unique and characteristic mood pattern of a person
- the inherent and characteristic way in which a person reacts to stimuli, and generally refers to the aspect of the personality that has to do with feelings and the expression thereof
- biologically based individual differences in reactivity and self-regulation
- have been regarded as the core of the personality
9 Dimensions:
(Activity), (Affect & Reactivity), (Persistence & Attention), (Rhythmicity, Approach, Sensitivity & Adaptivity)
Easy child
- moods of mild to moderate intensity, usually positive (Affect)
- responds well to novelty and change (Adaptability)
- quickly develops regular sleep and feeding schedules. Takes new foods easily
- smiles at strangers. Adapts easily to new situations
- Accepts most frustrations with little fuss
- Adapts quickly to new routines and rules of new games
Difficult child
- intense and frequent negative moods; cries often and loudly; also laughs loudly
- responds poorly to novelty and change
- sleeps and eats irregularly. Accepts new foods slowly
- Is suspicious of strangers. Adapts slowly to new situations
- reacts to frustration and tantrums
- adjusts slowly to new routines
Slow-to-warm-up child
- has mildly intense reactions, both positive and negative
- responds slowly to novelty and change
- sleeps and eats more regularly than difficult child, less regularly than the easy child
- shows mildly negative initial response to new stimuli (a first encounter with a new person, place, or situation)
- gradually develops a liking for new stimuli after repeated, unpressurised exposures
- adjusts gradually to new routines
- manifests in the foetus, and is visible in a new-born
- certain temperamental traits show stability, such as agreeableness, shyness, activity level and irritability
- shyness predicts anxiety and depression
- goodness-of-fit : the appropriateness of a child’s temperament to their environment, especially the parents’ temperament, is most important
- optimal development will take place when a baby’s temperament and environmental influences are in tune with each other
Factors influencing attachment and long term effects
Attention seeking behaviours: response to their demands for love and attention. Mothers who do not respond effectively to their infants’ distress develop and insecure-resistant attachment
Personality of the mother and her relationship with the baby
- babies of mothers who are responsive and sensitive to their babies’ needs and who interpret their behavioural cues correctly are inclined to have stronger attachment bonds with their mothers than are babies of mothers who are insensitive or unresponsive
Temperament of the infant
- if the baby is difficult, it may have a negative effect on the mother and the development of attachment will be affected adversely
- goodness of fit is important
The working mother
- does not have a significant negative effect on the attachment with and general development of her children
Psychosocial factors
- unhappy marriage, poverty, trauma and a lack of social support may cause an unsatisfactory attachment
- dealing with these stressful circumstances take up a lot of the mother’s time
- leads to unresponsiveness, insensitivity, intrusiveness and lower levels of stimulation
Parents’ mental health
- risk of being diagnosed with attachment problems increases if parents are diagnosed with any type of mental disorder
- alcohol abuse and depression especially plays a role
Long term effects of attachment
- children who experienced secure attachment as infants are more curious, self-directed and engaged in classrooms
- better vocabularies
- better school performance and IQ in middle childhood
- protective factor against cognitive declining such as dementia
- good emotional regulation later in life
- show more joyfulness, even in adverse situations
- more sociable and have more positive interactions with peers at a later stage
- prepares them for the intimacy of friendship later in life
- better communication proficiency
Stranger and Separation anxiety (Infancy)
Stranger anxiety
- begins at 8 months
- peaks at 10-18 months
- resolves at 24 months
- tend to react more negatively when mother is not present
- react more positively when the stranger is a child
- children with secure attachment display less stranger anxiety
Separation anxiety
- occurs between 8-24 months
- peaks at 14-16 months
- decreases at 20-24 months
- more intense when they are in a strange environment
- less intense when they are left with someone familiar
- related to object permanence: the baby understands that objects and people continue to exist even if they are out of sight. If the caregiver leaves, babies realise that they continue to exist in a separate location
- separation anxiety is shown because the infant would like to be with the caregiver, probably because an attachment bond has been formed
Socialisation during infancy
- Socialisation refers to the process by which children learn to conform to the moral standards, role expectations and requirements for acceptable behaviour of their community and culture
- elimination of undesirable behaviour and the learning of desirable behaviour
- primary caregivers are the most important socialisation agents
- direct teaching
- acting as role models
- control certain aspects of the child’s social life that could influence their social development
- positive reinforcement which includes rewarding children for correct behaviour
- Induction which includes reasoning, explaining and the setting of clear limits
- Scaffolding which refers to parental support of their children’s efforts, allowing the children to be more skillful than they would be if they were to rely on their own abilities
- Power assertion which includes physical punishment, forceful commands, and the removal of objects and privileges
- Withdrawal of love when the parents ignore the child or reacts coldly towards their behaviour
Toilet training
- should not begin before the central nervous system and neuromuscular coordination of children reaches a certain level of maturity (18 months old)
- the later toilet training begins, the sooner the desired behaviour will be learnt (20 -24 months)
- the way parents deal with the process is very important
- a relaxed, supportive, accepting attitude with sufficient positive reinforcement is more likely to produce positive results
- average children should be in control of their toilet functions between about two-and-a-half and three-and-a-half
- girls tend to complete the toilet training process 2-3 months earlier than boys
Weaning
- gradually decreasing a typical food in favour of a different food
- solid foods are introduced from the age of 6 months, or when they have doubled in their birth weight, when they can sit without support, when they can hold their heads upright and steady and when they start showing interest in solid foods
