subsistence

Question 1

adaptation

Answer 1

the interaction process between changes an organism makes in its environment and changes the environment makes in the organism

Question 2

Tsembaga of New Guinea

Answer 2

raise pigs, which they sacrifice as as a symbolic end to hostilities. cyclical KAIKO FEAST keeps pig pop. manageable.

Question 3

Anthropogenesis

Answer 3

Changes in the environment which are a result of man’s activities are the result of anthropogenesis (this is in Greek and means ‘man created change’)

Question 4

Malaria and the Environment

Answer 4

slash and burn allowed water to pool in africa allowing mosquitos (malaria carriers) to thrive

Question 5

Sickle Cell Trait

Answer 5

Sickle cell trait helps a person survive malaria

Question 6

Ojibwa in Eastern Canada

Answer 6

moved to plains and altered lifestyles upon european arrival. went from sedentary to nomadic

Question 7

Convergent evolution

Answer 7

occurs when two groups with different cultural backgrounds independently come up with the same solution to a similar environmental problem.

Question 8

Parallel evolution

Answer 8

happens when two cultures with similar backgrounds come up with similar solutions.

Question 9

Subsistence Patterns

Answer 9

Strategies used to acquire food . affects every other aspect of culture

Question 10

Food Foraging (Hunter-Gatherers)

Answer 10

oldest and most universal means of subsistence
90% of all people who have lived used this lifestyle to survive
today’s foragers live in marginal areas

Question 11

Characteristics of Foragers

Answer 11

residence is based on where the resources are, and this will change with the seasons - mobility and nomadism are common
may have regular or annual patterns of movement based on what resources are available when
location of water source is critical

Question 12

foraging Carrying Capacity

Answer 12

group size tends to be small, fewer than 100
carrying capacity (# of people the land can support) is important and includes tool and other requirements
number of people in the group tends to stabilize well below the environment’s carrying capacity, sometimes 1/3 to 1/5 the numbers the home territory can support - this rarely exceeds 1 person/sq. mile

Question 13

three crucial elements of social organization developed in foraging cultures

Answer 13

Sexual division of labor
Food sharing
Camp is the center of activity

Question 14

foraging Sexual Division of Labour

Answer 14

hunting/butchering of large game, processing of hard raw materials are almost (but not) always masculine occupations
women tend to gather and process vegetable foods, do domestic chores

Question 15

womens work in foraging

Answer 15

can be just as demanding as mens work
requires women to be able to stop what theyre doing to tend to children
60-70% of foragers’ diets is gathered by the women

Question 16

Food Sharing

Answer 16

this is not typical among non-human primates
may have taken place as men and women would supply different food stuffs

Question 17

forager Camps

Answer 17

location to congregate
focal point for activity and sleeping place
can change (on regular basis) according to access to resources

Question 18

Egalitarianism

Answer 18

lack in different statuses in foraging societies because of the impracticality of carrying possessions around
no private ownership
hoarding/excessive possessions is very frowned upon

Question 19

foragers Status

Answer 19

only differences in status are age/sex based
each sex has its own exclusive rituals that the other is forbidden to be a part of
women are not controlled by men
elderly help w/ childcare and knowledge

Question 20

General Characteristics of foragers

Answer 20

small group size (usually <100), but can be higher in some circumstances
mobility, but if the environment is rich, may be more sedentary
social networks and food sharing
keep population levels below the carrying capacity
few material possessions
tend to be egalitarian
division of labour

Question 21

Gathering

Answer 21

the collection of wild plants, eggs, small land animals, and shellfish – some would include insects as well
technology needed – digging sticks, carrying containers

Question 22

Hunting

Answer 22

actively searching for, killing, butchering, and consuming animals (both mammals and non-mammals like birds and reptiles)
domesticated animals are not hunted
hunts are successful 10% of the time

Question 23

Fishing

Answer 23

obtaining fish or sea mammals using any technique
can involve nets, spears, traps…

Question 24

Scavenging

Answer 24

is associated with people obtaining animals that have been killed by another animal or are already dead
humans are opportunistic scavengers and will take advantage of what is available to them, especially if the carcass is large and the risks taken in obtaining it are low
it has been argued that scavenging preceded hunting as a subsistence strategy

Question 25

Australia

Answer 25

hunting and gathering groups in Australia did not have horticulturalist neighbours – no plants or animals were domesticated (other than the dog) on that continent leadership tended to be informal, but there could be elders with control over large areas through kinship ties group size varied depending on the activities being pursued ceremonies and rituals often drew large groups together temporarily through long distance trade networks, much of the continent was connected

Question 26

Seasonal Round

Answer 26

groups will move from one area to another as resources become available to them the timing and movement involved is called a seasonal round

Question 27

Fission-Fusion

Answer 27

fission is the splitting of a large group into two or more smaller ones, and fusion is the opposite of that, where two or more smaller groups join together

Question 28

Foragers and Collectors

Answer 28

these are the two hunting-gathering strategies most anthropologists recognize foragers are sometimes called travelers, and collectors are sometimes called processors

Question 29

Foragers

Answer 29

foragers have a seasonal round, move from one camp to another depending on the time of year and the resources. people move to resources!!!

Question 30

Collectors

Answer 30

collectors exploit specific resources, in bulk, through specific, organized activities (eg. salmon fishing) resources are moved to the people!!!

Question 31

strategies definition

Answer 31

long term goals with broad plans

Question 32

tactics definition

Answer 32

short term practices which can be part of the method used to achieve a long term goal. Not all tactics are used on a daily basis

Question 33

Farming/Animal Husbandry origins

Answer 33

first appears between 9 000 to 11 000 BP no clear explanation why the change to food-production occurred – it was probably not planned may have come out of practices that encouraged certain traits in plants and animals which then became more important in the diet

Question 34

Pros and Cons of Farming

Answer 34

requires more work, promotes larger groups of people that can lead to the spread of disease, and encourages competition for the best farm land farmers have to stay close to their gardens and so become tied to one place farming does even out seasonal fluctuations in wild resources because some domesticated plants can be stored for future use

Question 35

Social Changes w farming

Answer 35

social organization changed - a few were able to produce food for all, so others in the group could spend time as craftsmen kinship groups formed

Question 36

Horticulture

Answer 36

cultivation of domestic plants with simple hand tools (hoes, rakes, digging sticks) no irrigation abandon crops after few years no surplus

Question 37

Swidden/Slash and Burn

Answer 37

copies the ecosystem's diversity tends to occur in the tropics can support 200-250 people in semipermanent villages

Question 38

Horticultural Cycle

Answer 38

Clearing – land is cleared, typically by slash/burn technique Planting – digging sticks are used to loosen the soil, seeds are scattered or seedlings placed by hand Weeding – rarely needed due to intercropping Harvesting – can be labour intensive Fallowing – land is left unused so that the soil can recover

Question 39

Division of Labour horticulture

Answer 39

Clearing is done by men, but both men and women may help with planting, tending, and harvesting the crops Processing tends to be done by small groups of women Horticulturalist’s children work more than youngsters in any other subsistence pattern

Question 40

Social Status horticulture

Answer 40

Control over the distribution of what is produced is what determines status

Question 41

Economics and Ownership horticulture

Answer 41

Horticulturalists can produce small surpluses, which can allow for differences in economic status to emerge As some gain higher status, sharing rules decline in importance

Question 42

Environmental Considerations horticulture

Answer 42

Horticulture is a sustainable system IF the land is allowed to recover between crops Unfortunately population pressures, encroachment by outsiders onto traditional lands, and the need to produce surpluses have forced farmers to overuse the land available to them The result is soil depletion, falling crop yields, soil erosion, and increasing deforestation

Question 43

Pastoralism

Answer 43

herds of domestic animals coupled with nomadism movement is considered normal in these cultures there may be some dependence on farmers for goods and some supplies, but nomadism is central to their identity effective way to survive where conditions are too dry, steep, cold, rocky for farming - N Africa, Middle East, Mongolia

Question 44

animals common in pastoralism

Answer 44

sheep, goats, cattle, reindeer, horses

Question 45

The Bakhtiari of Iran

Answer 45

two seasonal migrations In the fall their move their flocks down the slopes, in the spring they return to higher elevations

Question 46

Bakhtiari Gender Roles

Answer 46

Labor is divided based on gender Men engage in limited hunting and herd the animals Women cook, weave, sew, care for the children and carry fuel and water Men control the economic sphere as they own the livestock Elder women can rise to positions of power, but politics is primarily male dominated

Question 47

Emergence of Intensive Agriculture

Answer 47

Farming communities eventually grew into cities Craft specialists (eg. potters, metalsmiths, masons) become more common Urbanization brings changes in social organization Farmers are governed by a ruling elite, and agriculture changes to feed a larger population Inequality and rank/stratified society appears

Question 48

Intensive Agriculture - Characteristics

Answer 48

may use fertilizers, irrigation, plows harnessed to animals tends to produce surplus food on large areas of land which are cultivated repeatedly crop complexes are based on dry upland or tropical wetland conditions - dry land in SW Asia = wheat, barley, flax, rye, millet; in the Americas = maize - wetland in E Asia rice, yams, taro

Question 49

The Aztecs

Answer 49

highly sophisticated urban society Tenochtitlan was five times larger than London in 1519 Maize (corn) was the primary crop, but they also grew beans, squash, tomatoes, peppers, cotton and tobacco Dogs and turkeys were raised for eating

Question 50

Chinampas

Answer 50

Crops around the capital were grown on artificial plots built in shallow water Canals around these allowed for access Dredging the mud produced natural fertilizer and water plants became mulch These fields were extremely fertile Access to land was based on lineages

Question 51

Aztec social order developed into classes under a king chosen by the nobility:

Answer 51

1. Nobles who were marked by gender inequality and who were assigned lands by the ruler 2. Commoners whose access to land was based on their lineage 3. Serfs who were bound to the land 4. Slaves some had voluntary entered bondage, others were prisoners of war

Question 52

Mechanized Agriculture

Answer 52

Industrialized agriculture is a form of intensive agriculture which relies on complex technological and production processes monocropping fertilizers/pesticide/herbicides unsustainable in the long term

Question 53

Was Agriculture a Big Mistake?

Answer 53

The shift from foraging to farming has had huge impacts on culture and the environment Gender roles and social status shifted from egalitarian to systems with marked inequality – classes emerged, with controlling elites Larger populations led to increased disease Surpluses allowed wealth be accumulated by a few Soil erosion, deforestation, and water control projects have damaged the environment