syntax
examines structure of sentences: phrases and clauses
word classes
- closed classes - prepositions, pronouns, determiners, conjuctions, modal verbs, primary verbs
- open classes - nouns, adjectives, full verbs, adverbs
- the rest - numerals, interjections, negative particle, infinitive marker
nouns
- morphological criteria (form)
-derivational morphemes -hood, -ness, …
-inflectional morphemes -plural -s, genitive sg. ‘s, … - syntactic criteria - can funtion as subject or object, can be used with an article/determiner
full (lexical) verbs (fV)
e.g. sing, dance
special case: multi-word verbs: phrased vs. prepositional verb
auxiliary (grammatical) verbs (auxV)
- primary verbs
- modal verbs
- marginal verbs
- modal idioms
- semi-auxiliaries
primary verbs
be, have, do
can function as both auxV and mV
modal verbs
NICE properties
-Negotion
-Inversion
-Code
-Emphasis
adjectives
- morphological criteria
- derivational morphemes -ful, -less, …
-inflectional morphemes - comparative -er, superlative -est - syntactic criteria
- attributive use or predicative use
- modification by intensifying adverbs possible
adverbs
- morphological criteria
-derivational morpheme -ly, -wise,… - syntactic criteria
-adverbials in sentences
-modification of adjective or adverbs
adjuncts
circumstantial adverbs (time, space, manner)
disjuncts
stance adverbials (indicate speaker’s emotions)
conjuncts
linking adverbs
subjuncts
degree adverbs
pronouns
- personal
- possessive
- reflexive
- demonstrative
- reciprocal
- relative
- interrogative
- indefinite
determiners
- predeterminer
- central determiner
- postdeterminer
prepositions
- simple
- marginal
- complex
conjunctions
- coordinating
- subordinating
- corelatives
numerals
- cardinal
- ordinal
sentence constituents
- subject
- verb
- direct object
- indirect object
- subject complement
- object complement
- adverbial
phrase and sentence structure (hierarchical)
- sentence
- clause
- phrase
- word
- (morpheme)
- (phoneme)
phrase structure (word level)
verb phrases (VP)
noun phrases (NP)
adjective phrases (AdjP)
adverb phrases (AdvP)
prepositional phrases (PP)
clauses
‘sentences within other sentences’
complex sentence pattern
- coordination : main clause + main clause
- subordination : main clause + subordinate clause
embedded phrases
phrases can be embedded within other phrases
this can be accounted for using brackets or tree diagrams
