TASK 4 - ETHICS + RHETORIC

Question 1

ethics

Answer 1

= moral philosophy = systematising, defending and recommending concepts of right and wrong behaviour

• three general subject areas:
  1. metaethics
  2. normative ethics
  3. applied ethics
• lines are often blurry

Question 2

1. metaehtics

Answer 2

= where our ethical principles come from and what they mean

- psychological basis of our moral judgments –> what motivates us to be moral

Question 3

1. metaethics

- egoism vs. altruism

Answer 3

1. psychological egoism = self-oriented interests ultimately motivate all human actions
2. psychological hedonism = pleasure is the specific driving force behind all of our actions
3. psychological altruism = at least some of our actions are motivated by instinctive benevolence

Question 4

1. metaehtics

- emotion vs. reason

Answer 4

1. Hume: emotivist and prescriptivist theories = we need distinctly emotional reaction in order to make a moral pronouncement, reason is giving the relevant data
   - emotive element + prescriptive element
2. Kant: true moral action is motivated only by reason when it is free from emotions and desires
3. Baier: rationalist approach = all of our moral choices are/can be backed by some reason or justification –> proper moral decision making involves giving the best reasons in support of one course of action

Question 5

2. normative ethics

Answer 5

= establish single/set of foundational principles against which we judge all actions

• single principle: Golden Rule = we should do others what we would want others to do to us
• only one ultimate criterion of moral conduct (single or set)

Question 6

2. normative ethics

- virtue theories

Answer 6

= we should develop good habits of character (= virtues) + avoid acquiring bad character traits (= vices)

• emphasis on moral education
• virtues are grounded and emerge from within social traditions

Question 7

2. normative ethics

- consequentialist theories

Answer 7

= correct moral conduct is determined solely by a cost-benefit analysis of an action’s consequences

1. tally good and bad consequences of an action
2. determine whether the total good consequences outweigh the total bad consequences
   - -> morally right = consequences of action more favourable than unfavourable
   1) ethical egoism = consequences are more favourable than unfavourable to AGENT
   2) ethical altruism = consequences are more favourable than unfavourable to EVERYONE EXCEPT THE AGENT
   3) utilitarianism = consequences are more favourable than unfavourable to EVERYONE
   - act-utilitarianism = determine case by case for each action whether it is morally right/wrong
   - hedonistic utilitarianism = pleasure vs. pain caused by actions

Question 8

2. normative ethics

- duty theories

Answer 8

= base morality on specific, foundational principles of obligation; there are clear obligation

1) Pufendorf: duties to God, duties to oneself, duties to others
2) Locke: life, liberty, pursuit of happiness
3) Kant: categorical imperative = simply mandates action, irrespective of one’s personal desires
- -> treat people as an end, and never as a means to an end (dignity)

Question 9

3. applied ethics

Answer 9

= examining and resolving specific controversial issues by using tools of metaethics and normative ethics

Question 10

rhetoric

Answer 10

= figures of speech = words and constructions you can employ to make your argument more attractive

• place emphasis
• create an impression
• build tension
• introduce surprise/ bewilderment
• enhance persuasive power

Question 11

repetitio

Answer 11

= word/phrase is repeated almost verbatim a number of times

–> hammering it home to the audience

Question 12

anaphora

Answer 12

= repetitio at the start of a number of sentences

Question 13

the rule of three

Answer 13

= three is a quantity that sticks

Question 14

chiasmus

Answer 14

= two related sentences/phrases are each other’s syntactical mirror image

Question 15

rhetorical question

Answer 15

= definite statement in the shape of a question; not meant to be answered

Question 16

metaphor

Answer 16

= call something by another name directly

–> comparing that which you really mean with that which you call it

Question 17

tautology

Answer 17

= concept is repeated using different word that has (roughly) the same meaning
–> both words belong to same lexical category

Question 18

pleonasm

Answer 18

= obvious quality of an object/concept is repeated

–> words belong to two different lexical categories

Question 19

hyperbole

Answer 19

= more or less appropriate exaggeration

–> often comical effect

Question 20

enumeration

Answer 20

= number of names, facts, arguments follow each other up

–> give each element an empathetic and convincing ring

Question 21

paradox

Answer 21

= apparent contradiction

–> upon closer reading, phrase turns out to be correct after all

Question 22

understatement

Answer 22

= intentional trivialisation

Question 23

euphemism

Answer 23

= term which sounds too harsh/unkind is replaced with another, less direct term
–> fear of calling something by its real name

Question 24

oxymoron

Answer 24

= combination of two contradictory terms

Question 25

litotes

Answer 25

= special kind of understatement; something is strongly emphasised by denying the opposite