Deontology
ethical theory that uses rules to distinguish right from wrong –> rule based
- Easy to apply but possibly disregard consequences of our actions when determining what’s right/wrong (often produces outcomes many people would find unacceptable)
- Agent-relative – each person is responsible for the moral value of their own action
Utilitarianism (consequentialism)
determine right & wrong by focusing on outcomes reason
– Agent-neutral – what is right for one is right for everyone in the group
Dual Process Theory (Greene)
Two competing neurological systems:
System 1: Conscious, rational evaluation of the facts the produce a utilitarian response
- activated when there is reduced personal/emotional involvement
- cognitively controlled, utilitarian
System 2: affective response –> non-utilitarian & less rational
- activated when emotionally invested
automatic, deontological
Social Intuitionist Model (SIM) Haidt
- Set of causal links, connecting 3 types of psychological processes: intuition, judgement & reasoning
- Intuitive judgement link – one’s judgements are driven primarily by one’s intuitions
Reasoned persuasion
SIM
reasoning influences another’s intuition
Social persuasion
SIM
own judgement influences another’s by changing their intuition without explicit reasoning
Reasoned judgement
SIM
allows reasoning to directly influence judgement
Private reflection
SIM
allows reasoning to influence judgement by modifying one’s intuitions
Moral Foundations Theory (Haidt)
5 psychological moral foundations on which most cultures & individuals build their systems of morality
- Care/ harm –> prohibitions against harm
- Fairness/ cheating –> reciprocal altruism
- In-group/ loyalty –> commitment to our social group
- Authority/ respect
- Purity/ sanctity –> moral reactions of disgust against spiritual/ physical contagions that must be avoided
Relational Models Theory (Fiske)
employ four basic schemas/mental models that coordinate nearly all social interactions
- usually employ multiple models at the same time to navigate different aspects of a social interaction
Moral identity - two dimensions
- internalisation = private aspect –> captures chronic accessibility of the self-schema thus indicates chronic subjective experience of having a moral identity
- Reflecting about distant moral behaviour (resembles internalisation) increases prosocial motivations
- symbolisation = public aspect –> captures importance a person places on exhibiting a public moral self as a way of affirming one’s morality (partly driven by impression management, self-verification motives)
- Reflecting about recent moral behaviour (resembles symbolisation) decreases prosocial intentions
Internalisation primacy principle (IPP)
- Internalisation more important than symbolisation when it comes to impact of moral cues
- Symbolisation is more important when internalisation is low
Neural mechanisms
- medial prefrontal cortex
- anterior cingulate cortex
- vmPFC
- insula
Factors influencing moral reasoning
- empathy
- stress
Empathy as a factor
Morality & empathy are two independent motives, each with its own unique goal
- emotional component: capacity to share and become affectively aroused by others’ emotions
- motivational component: empathic concern –> urge of caring for another’s welfare
- cognitive component: perspective taking – strategy for reducing group biases
Stress as a factor
- Stress response appears to preferentially activate regions involved in emotional processing
- More stress = less utilitarian response
- Support for Greene’s dual process theory
- –> Stress gives preference to “automatic” emotional system at expense of the cognitive controlled system
Moral Enhancement
Intervention aimed at improving moral decision making and behaviour
- more of an advantage for society rather than individual in question
West vs East (cultural differences)
WEST
- deontological ethics: moral obligations are understood to be inescapable, fact-like requirements for behaviour that can be generalised to other situations
- Justice & fairness viewed as matter of equity (= outcomes are proportional to effort)
EAST
- confucianism: – “virtue ethics” in which the cultivation of good character is seen as the key source of moral behaviour (interpersonal duty-based rather than rights-based morality)
- Justice & fairness viewed as matter of equality (= individuals deserve equal outcomes)
