1
Q
Name the 3 stages of the development in children’s moral reasoning (Piaget)
A
- Premoral judgement (4 to 5)
- Moral realism (4-10)
- Moral subjectivism (9-10)
2
Q
- Premoral judgement (4-5)
A
rules not understood
3
Q
- Moral realism (5-10)
A
rules come from higher authority and cannot be changed
evaluate actions based on outcomes
punishment = invitable retribution
4
Q
- Moral subjectivism (9-10)
A
rules are created by people and can be changed by mutual consent
evaluate actions by intentions
punishment as chosen to fit crime
5
Q
Discuss 4 criticisms of Piaget’s theory
A
- The quality of peer interactions is more important than quantity.
- By making intentions more salient in tests, rather than consequences, young children are more likely to recognize people with bad intentions.
- If told explicitly that person had no foreknowledge of consequences, young children would not think person caused something on purpose.
- Young children do not believe that some actions (hurting others) are right even when adults say they are.
6
Q
Describe the stages of Kohlberg’s theory of moral judgement
A
Moral development proceeds through specific series of stages that are discontinuous and hierarchical. So, each new stage reflects qualitatively different, more adequate way of thinking.
7
Q
Does everyone move through Kohlberg’s stages and do they reach all stages?
A
everyone moves through them in the same order but differ in how many stages they attain
8
Q
What kind of people show higher-level moral judgement?
A
People who have:
- Higher-level cognitive skills
- Higher perspective-taking skills
- Better educated
9
Q
Name the 1/3 level of Kohlberg’s stages of moral judgement development
- what are each centered and focused on?
- age associated
A
- Preconventional level (stage 1= punishment and obedience orientation, stage 2= instrumental and exchange orientation
- self-centered and focused on getting rewards and avoiding punishment
- mainly 10 years old
10
Q
Name the 2/3 level of Kohlberg’s stages of moral judgement development
- what are each centered and focused on?
- age associated
A
- Conventional level (stage 3= mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships and interpersonal conformity, stage 4- social system and conscience orientation)
- centered on social relationships
- focuses on compliance with social duties and laws
- mainly 14+
11
Q
Name the 3/3 level of Kohlberg’s stages of moral judgement development
- what are each centered and focused on?
A
- Postconventional level (stage 5= social contract or individual rights orientation, stage 6= universal ethical principles)
- focused on moral principles
12
Q
Stage 1 (Punishment and Obedience Orientation) of Kohlberg
A
- Child does not consider interests of others and what makes them decide what is good or wrong (= conscience) is scared of punishment and moral actions are motivated by avoidance of punishment.
- Reasoning in dilemma emphasizes punishment by legal authorities and jail.
- What is right is obedience to authorities.
13
Q
Stage 2 (Instrumental and exchange orientation) of Kohlberg
A
- Right behavior is doing what is in one’s own best interest or involves equal exchange between people.
- Reasoning in dilemma emphasizes reward of saving life and punishment is less severe than in stage 1
14
Q
Stage 3 (mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships and interpersonal conformity) of Kohlberg
A
- Right behavior is doing what is generally expected by people close to person and by society.
- Being good means having good motives, showing concern about others and maintaining good relationships.
- Reasoning in dilemma emphasizes judgement of family members and shame that others know about the crime.
15
Q
Stage 4 (social system and conscience orientation) of Kohlberg
A
- Right behavior is fulfilling one’s duties, upholding laws and contributing to society or one’s group.
- Reasoning in dilemma emphasizes responsibility of looking after one another’s health in marriage and there is no reasoning supporting that Heinz should not steal drug.
- Individual is motivated to keep social system and avoid breakdown in its functioning.
16
Q
Stage 5 (social system and conscience orientation) of Kohlberg
A
- Right behavior is upholding rules in best interest of group, impartial and agreed upon by group.
- Exceptions – Life and liberty are universally right and must be upheld regardless of majority opinion.
- Reasoning in dilemma emphasizes that right to life must take precedence over other values and it is difficult to construct reason justifying not stealing drug.
17
Q
Stage 6 (Universal ethical principles)
A
- Right behavior is commitment to self-chosen ethical principles that reflect universal principles of justice (equality of human rights and respect for dignity).
- Individual should act in accordance with universal principles when laws violate these principles.
18
Q
Discuss 4 criticisms of Kohlberg’s theory
A
- Does not sufficiently differentiate between moral issues and issues of social convention.
- Only reflects intellectualized conception of morality biased by Western values – It does not consider cultural differences.
- It is not clear that development of moral reasoning is qualitatively discontinuous (children and adolescents may acquire cognitive skills to use higher stages of moral reasoning but may use lower stages when it is consistent with goals, motives or beliefs in a situation).
- Classification is biased against females because it does not recognize differences in moral reasoning between males and females (males score higher in dilemma – They value justice and rights, while females value responsibility, avoidance of hurting others and caring)
19
Q
Prosocial Behaviour
A
Voluntary behavior intended to benefit another, such as helping, sharing, and comforting of others.
20
Q
How does prosocial moral judgement change with age?
A
children’s prosocial moral judgement becomes more abstract and based more on internalized principles and values.
21
Q
Name the 5 levels of prosocial moral reasoning (Eisenberg)
A
- Hedonistic self-focused orientation
- Needs-based orientation
- Approval and/or stereotyped orientation
4a. Self-reflective empathic orientation
4b. Transitional level - Strongly internalized stage
22
Q
Stage l of prosocial moral reasoning (Eisenberg): Hedonistic self-focused orientation
A
Individual is concerned with own interests rather than moral considerations.
Reasons for (not) assisting include:
- Expectation of direct personal gain/future reciprocation
- Whether one needs/likes another person
23
Q
Stage 2 of prosocial moral reasoning (Eisenberg): needs-based orientation
A
Individual is concerned with physical, material, and psychological needs of others even when these conflict with own needs.
- Expressed with verbal expressions of sympathy or reference to emotions (pride or guilt).
24
Q
Stage 3 of prosocial moral reasoning (Eisenberg): approval and/or stereotyped orientation
A
Individual justifies engagement (or not) in prosocial behavior on basis of others’ approval and/or on stereotyped images of good and bad behavior.
25
Stage 4a of prosocial moral reasoning (Eisenberg): self-reflective empathic orientation
Individual’s judgements include:
- Evidence of self-reflective sympathetic responding/role-taking;
- Concern with other’s humanness;
- Guilt or positive emotion related to consequences of one’s actions.
26
Stage 4b of prosocial moral reasoning (Eisenberg): transitional level
Justifications for helping/not helping involve internalized values, duties or responsibilities.
- Reflect concerns for condition of larger society;
- Refer to necessity of protecting rights and dignities of other people.
- Ideals are not strongly stated.
27
Stage 5 of prosocial moral reasoning (Eisenberg): strongly internalized stage
Level characterized by positive or negative emotions related to whether one succeeds in living up to own values and accepted norms. Justifications for helping/not helping are based on:
- Internalized values, duties, norms or responsibilities;
- Desire to maintain individual and societal contractual obligations;
- Improve condition of society;
- Belief in rights, dignity and equality of all individuals.
28
Moral judgement
- age 3
- age 4
Decisions that pertain to issues of right and wrong, fairness and justice.
- age 3: children believe moral violations are more wrong than social conventional violations.
- age 4: children believe moral transgressions are wrong even if adult does not know and does not say they are wrong.
29
Social conventional judgments
Decisions that pertain to customs or regulations intended to secure social coordination and social organization
30
Personal judgements
Decisions that refer to actions in which individual preferences are the main consideration.
31
Altruistic motives
Helping others for reasons that initially include empathy/sympathy for others and, at later ages, desire to act in ways consistent with one’s own conscience and moral principles.
32
Empathy
Emotional reaction to another’s emotional state or condition highly similar to other person’s state or condition.
33
What is required to experience empathy?
children must be able to identify emotions of others and understand that a person is feeling an emotio
34
Discuss the development of empathy at
- 10 to 14 months
- 18 to 25 months
- Age 10 – 14 months: children sometimes become upset when they see someone else upset.
- Age 18 – 25 months: children start displaying empathy and are more likely to comfort someone that is upset rather than become upset themselves. From here they start showing concern and thus feeling sympathy.
35
Sympathy
Feeling of concern for another in reaction to other’s emotional state or condition.
36
How does sympathy and empathy differ?
sympathy involves concern
37
Evoluntionary perspective on developing the capacity for empathy and altruism
enhances likelihood of passing genes to next generation
38
Name and explain 3 biological factors contributing to individual differences in prosocial behaviour
1. Genetics: identical twins are more similar than fraternal twins when it comes to reports of own empathy and prosocial behavior.
2. Oxytocin: plays a role in social behaviors and emotion. It has been associated with parental attachment, empathy and prosocial behavior.
3. Temperament: children who experience emotion without getting overwhelmed by it are likely to experience sympathy and enact prosocial behavior.
- Emotion regulation is related to theory of mind – Thus, theory of mind predicts children’s prosocial behavior.
39
Discuss how modelling and communication of values through parental socialization can contribute to prosocial behaviour
Children tend to imitate other people’s helping and sharing behavior, including that of unknown peers or adults.
-> Parents and children tend to be similar in their levels of prosocial behavior and sympathy.
40
Discuss how opportunities for prosocial activities through parental socialization can contribute to prosocial behaviour
Providing children with opportunities to engage in helpful activities increases willingness to take prosocial tasks at later time.
-> At home, prosocial tasks could be household tasks but that may foster prosocial actions primarily toward family members.
41
Discuss how discipline and parenting style through parental socialization can contribute to prosocial behaviour
High levels of prosocial behavior and sympathy in children tend to be associated with constructive and supportive parenting.
- Parenting style with authoritative approach promotes sympathy and prosocial behavior.
- Parenting style with physical punishment and authoritarian approach is linked to lack of sympathy and prosocial behavior.
- If given material rewards for prosocial behaviors, they start to believe that they helped for rewards and may be less motivated to help when no rewards are offered.
Most effective discipline – Involves reasoning that points out consequences of behavior, encourages perspective taking and is used by warm and supportive parents.
42
Conscience
| - when does it emerge
an internal regulatory mechanism that increases individual’s ability to conform to standards of conduct accepted in his/her culture
- before age 2: emerges slowly
43
Factors promoting conscience differs depending on x2
1. Temperament
| 2. Genetic inheritance
44
Name the 3 domains of altruistic activity
1. helping others achieve goals
2. sharing valuable goods
3. informing others of things they need/want to know
45
Helping
To provide needed help, infants must understand goal of other and be motivated to help achieving it.
46
Helping (6 months)
Infants discriminate shapes that ‘help’ others from those ‘hindering’ them.
47
Helping (14-18 months)
Toddlers pick up objects on the floor and return it.
48
Helping (age 20 months)
When provided with promise of material reward, helping decreased after it was over.
49
Overjustification effect
When expected external reward decreases person’s motivation to perform task.
50
Sharing
In sharing valuable resources, children are more tolerant and altruistic towards others.
51
Mutualistic cooperation
Young children tend to share food rewards equally regardless of whether they are pre-divided or not.
52
Informing
| - when does it appear?
Free exchange of information in communication, in which humans engage constantly, can be a kind of altruism too.
- 12 months: infants show directions with fingers
53
Cooperative act
Human communication is based on assumption that act provides useful information for listener.
Development: Maastricht University
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