1
Q
The numbers of disasters and the impacts of disasters are not static. There is, however, a difference between the two broad categories of natural hazards:
A
- Hydrometeorological hazards, such as floods, storms, cyclones and drought, appear to have become more common over time, perhaps because of global warming and human environmental management issues such as deforestation.
- Tectonic disasters, i.e. the events, have not increased or decreased over time. The number of events is broadly the same decade over decade.
2
Q
Have tectonic disasters increased or decreased over time?
A
They have not increased or decreased.
- No. of events broadly the same decade over decade
3
Q
What are the trends for natural hazards?
A
- There has been no change in the number of earthquake disasters since 1980, which varies between 15 and 40 each year.
- Earthquake deaths are very variable: there were fewer than 1000 deaths worldwide in 2012 and 2014, yet more than 200,000 in 2010 and 2004. Overall, there are fewer earthquake deaths than there were 30-40 years ago, but the impact of single megadisasters skews the data.
- Megadisasters are high-magnitude, high-impact, infrequent disasters that affect multiple countries (directly or indirectly), so their impacts are regional or even global.
- The trend for earthquake economic losses is upwards, averaging about $20-40 billion per year but, once again, this is affected by very few large events.
4
Q
What are the trends for volcanic disasters?
A
Volcanic disasters are much less frequent than earthquake ones and deaths from eruptions are now rare. The last time an eruption killed more than 1000 people was in Cameron in 1986 (Lake Nyos) and only seven eruptions since 1980 have killed more than 100 people. However, the numbers affected can be very large because of the mass evacuation of people around an erupting volcano, e.g. 350,000 affected (evacuated) with the eruption of Mt Merapi in Indonesia in 2010, but only 300 deaths.
5
Q
Why have deaths fallen over time?
How much have deaths fallen between 1975 and 1980?
How did deaths fall from 2000-2015?
A
Better response management, preparation and prediction. Better warning systems, improved building codes.
120,000 - 90,000 per year.
70,000 - 20,000 per year.
6
Q
Why did the number of reported disasters increase and then stabilise?
How was reporting and coverage decades ago
A
Improvement in data coverage and accuracy of data increases.
Disasters went unreported
7
Q
How can the collection of disaster data be incomplete or inaccurate?
A
- When a disaster strikes, the immediate focus is on organising the rescue and aid efforts – not on collecting data.
- No single organisation is responsible for collecting data. As a result, methods vary in the data collection.
- There are even differences in the definitions of some of the key terms and categories used, such as disaster and damage.
- It is difficult to gather data from remote areas, so it is likely that underreporting of deaths and damage occurs in these areas, the very places in need of help and disaster planning.
8
Q
What is the recent number of reported disasters?
How did levels of reported disasters change from 1975 - 2015?
A
Fallen, suggesting fewer hazard events become disasters.
- 1975- 900
- 2003 - 450
- 2015 - 360 (stabilised)
9
Q
Explain the number of people affected by disasters:
A
Continues to rise as populations grow and more people live in risky locations.
10
Q
What are the trends of economic costs due to tectonic hazards?
A
Economic losses from tectonic disasters continue to rise. More people, who are more affluent, have more property to lose. This is increasingly true in emerging countries as well as developed ones.
The trend for earthquake economic losses is upwards, averaging about $20-40 billion per year but, once again, this is affected by very few large events.
- the economic Cost of the magnitude 9.0 japan earthquake and tsunami in 2011 – about US$240m – where the official death toll was 15,893. compare that with the lower magnitude 7.0 Haiti earthquake in 2010, which killed about 230,000 Haitians and had an economic cost of just US$14 billion. Haiti is one of the poorest and least developed countries in the world, and japan is one of the richest and most developed.
11
Q
What are the trends of meteorological, hydrological, geophysical, climatological and biological disasters?
A
Biological disasters have declined since 2000. This could be due to better healthcare systems. All other disasters have also seen a decline but did reach a peak.
12
Q
Why does the media focus on the sudden onset?
What types of hazards have been increasing and why?
A
More dramatically, newsworthy, perhaps giving the impression that there is actually more tectonics.
Hydro-meteorological due to the effects of climate change.
13
Q
What is a mega-disaster?
A
- Are large scale (in spatial scale or in impact), pose problems for effective management and require coordinated, usually international, responses.
- They are high-impact, low-probability (HILP) events.
- Likely range of impacts following a VEI 6+.
- A huge volcanic eruption could have a huge range of impacts.
- Yellowstone’s Caldera Super volcanos would potentially change the climate completely.
14
Q
What are the two case studies of mega-disasters?
A
Iceland 2010
Japan 2011
15
Q
What happened in Iceland 2010?
A
- Erupted 10m^3 of ash in one week up to an amplitude of about 9km.
European airspace shut down:
- The ash cloud from the eruption had a disruptive effect on air travel because of the dangers of jet engines ingesting ash: over 100,000 cancelled flights costing over £1 billion in losses.
- Tourism and airline industries lost significant income due to the fact that people could not move.
- Nissan plant in Japan had to halt production as they did not have certain parts that would be flown from Ireland.
- African countries (including Kenya, Ghana and Zambia) lost an estimated $ 65 million due to the loss of perishable goods; (fruit, flowers and vegetables) that couldn’t be flown to Europe.
16
Q
What happened in Japan 2011?
A
- 5% loss in overall GDP.
- Damage to Fukushima nuclear plant disabled the power supply and affected the cooling of three reactors, causing radioactive releases.
- Toyota & Sony halted their production.
- Worldwide availability and cost of LNG (Liquefied Natural Gas) were affected as Japan’s demand increased.
- Germany and Italy immediately shut down their nuclear reactors and stopped plans for new ones.
17
Q
What is a multi-hazard zone?
A
Multiple hazard zones are places where two or more natural hazards occur, and in some cases interact to produce complex disasters. Examples are California, Indonesia and Japan. These locations:
18
Q
What is it about the multi-hazard zones which lead to tectonic hazards?
A
- Are tectonically active and so earthquakes (and often eruptions) are common.
- Are geologically young with unstable mountain zones prone to landslides.
- Are often on major storm tracks either in the mid-latitudes or on tropical cyclone tracks.
- May suffer from global climate perturbations such as El Niño and La Niña.
19
Q
What are 2 examples of a multi-hazard zone?
A
Philippines and Vanuatu
20
Q
Why is the Philippines a multi-hazard zone?
A
- The Philippines sits across a major convergent plate boundary so it faces significant risk from both volcanoes and earthquakes.
- Its northeastern coast faces the Pacific (one of the world’s tsunami-prone oceans).
- The Philippines lies within southeast Asia’s major typhoon belt. In most years, it is affected by 15 typhoons and actually struck by 6 to 9. These events not only bring strong winds and heavy rainfall but also increase the risk of flooding and landslides.
- It has a tropical monsoon climate, so it’s subject to heavy annual rains.
- The Philippines has 47 volcanoes – 22 of which are active. Over 30% of the country’s population lives within 30 km of a volcano.
- Landslides are common, due to a combination of steep topography, high levels of deforestation and high rainfall.
21
Q
What is the vulnerability of the Philippines?
A
The Philippines is a rapidly developing lower-middle-income country. Its development, and a fast-growing population, have led to rapid urbanisation and a high population density. Many of the countries poor live in coastal areas, Storm surges, and flooding in tsunamis are made worse by poorly constructed housing infrastructure. 25% of the population lives in poverty.
22
Q
What are the challenges of multi-hazard zones?
A
One hazard event can cause or increase hazards. For example, an earthquake in the Philippines in 2006:
- Killed 15 people, injured 100 and damaged or destroyed 800 buildings. Generated a local tsunami that was 3 m high. Triggered landslides, which breached the crater wall of the volcano and fell into a lake, creating a flood that washed away houses.
For example, in 2013, the Philippines was struck by three natural disasters within three months. An earthquake in October killed 223 people. Typhoon Haiyan in November killed 6201 people and floods from a tropical depression in January 2014 killed 64 people. The string of disasters left the Philippine government and aid agencies operating in a near-constant state of emergency.
23
Q
What has the Philippine government done to help increase resilience and reduce risk?
A
In 2009 the Philippine government passed disaster risk management to help increase resilience and reduce risk. This included removing illegal settlers from areas prone to Hydrometeorological hazards. There is an advisory system for meteorological events and monitoring of volcanoes, mapping of food systems in Manila, the capital has taken place, and there is a comprehensive 2011 to 2028 national disaster risk reduction and management plan for the whole country. The national disaster response pillar provides information and links all government and relief agencies, and volunteers for coordination.
24
Q
What does prediction mean?
What is forecasting?
A
- Prediction means knowing when and where a natural hazard will strike on a spatial and temporal scale that can be acted on meaningfully in terms of evacuation.
- Forecasting is much less precise than a prediction and provides a percentage change of a hazard occurring (e.g. a 25% of a magnitude 7.0 earthquake occurring in the next 20 years)
25
How do scientists predict earthquakes?
- Earthquake risk can be forecast since it is based on a statistical likelihood of an event happening at a particular location.
- These forecasts are based on data and evidence gathered from global seismic monitoring historical data is already used.
- Long-term forecasts (years to decades) are currently more reliable than short to medium-term (days to months).
- Forecasting is very important as it can encourage governments to enforce more stringent building codes in high-risk areas and to implement evacuation procedures.
- Only areas at high risk can be identified (risk forecasting), plus areas that are likely to suffer severe ground shaking and liquefaction; this can be used for land-use zoning purposes.
- 'Seismic gaps', i.e. areas that have not experienced an earthquake for some time and are 'overdue' can point to areas of high risk.
26
What are the stages for scientists to predict earthquakes?
- In order to predict earthquakes, scientists would need to identify a ‘diagnostic precursor’.
- This is something that happens before the earthquake to indicate that the earthquake is about to occur (like gas levels or high temperatures around a volcano). So far no precursors have been identified.
- Predicting earthquakes is a big topic within the scientific community, however, it seems unlikely at the moment that a diagnostic precursor will be identified.
27
How do scientists predict tsunamis?
- DART systems are designed to sense pressure changes at the bottom of the ocean caused by passing tsunamis and to communicate these changes to the tsunami warning centres. Each DART system consists of a bottom pressure recorder anchored to the ocean floor and separately monitored.
- When a tsunami passes over a pressure recorder, the instrument detects and measures changes in the overlying water pressure that result from the changes in water depth (a tsunami crest increases water depth while a trough decreases water depth). It uses this information to estimate sea-surface heights (height of the ocean surface above the ocean floor), which can be as small as 0.4 inches (1 centimetre).
- Prediction of tsunamis and eruptions depends upon technology, which has to be: in place, operational and linked to warming dissemination and evacuation systems.
- Tsunami monitoring equipment was not present in the Indian Ocean in 2004 so there wasn't a way of warning people on distant coasts - despite there being many hours in which to have done so.
- In many developing countries, volcano monitoring and tsunami warning may not be as good as they could be because of the cost of technology. Also, it may be more difficult to reach isolated, rural locations with effective warnings.
28
How do scientists predict volcanoes?
- Can be predicted.
- Sophisticated monitoring equipment on volcanoes can measure changes as magma chambers fill and eruption nears.
- Tiltmeters and strain meters record volcanoes 'bulging' as magma rises and seismometers record minor earthquakes indicating magma movement.
- Gas spectrometers analyse gas emissions which can point to increased eruption likelihood.
- The minimal death toll from volcanic eruptions (despite 60-80 eruptions per year) can be mainly attributed to vastly improved prediction of these events.
29
What is the hazard management cycle?
- Hazard management is where governments and other organisations work together to protect people from natural hazards.
- Hazard management aims to:
Avoid or reduce loss of life or property
Provide help to those affected
Ensure a rapid and effective recovery
- The Hazard-Management Cycle can be mapped as a theoretical model
30
What is the mitigation stage?
- Preventing hazard events or minimising their effects.
Focus:
- Identifying potential natural hazards and taking steps to rescue their impact. The main aim is to reduce loss of life and property (largely by helping communities to become less vulnerable).
Actions:
- Zoning and land-use planning.
- Developing and enforcing building codes.
- Building protective structures (such as tsunami sea defence walls).
Takes place:
- Before and after hazard events
31
What is the preparedness stage?
- Preparing to deal with a hazardous event.
Focus:
- Minimising loss of life and property and facilitating response and recovery. Plans are developed and implemented by emergency planners.
Actions:
- Developing preparedness plans.
- Developing early warning systems.
- Creating evacuation routes.
- Stockpiling aid/equipment/supplies.
- Raising public awareness (e.g. earthquake drills).
Takes place:
- Before hazard events.
32
What is the response stage?
- Responding effectively to a hazardous event.
Focus:
- Coping with disaster. The main aims are to save lives, protect property, make affected areas safe and reduce economic loss.
Actions:
- Search and rescue efforts.
- Evacuating people where needed.
- Restoring critical infrastructure (e.g. power/water supplies).
- Ensuring that critical services continue (e.g. medical care/law enforcement).
Takes place:
- After hazard events
33
What is the recovery stage?
- Getting back to normal.
Focus:
- Short-term recovery: this focuses on people’s immediate needs, so it overlaps with the response phases. Although called short-term, these activities may last for weeks.
- Long-term recovery: this involves some of the same actions, but may continue for months or even years. It includes taking steps to reduce future vulnerability, which overlaps with the mitigation phase and the cycle continues.
Takes place:
- After hazard events
34
What are the two types of actions in recovery?
Short-term recovery:
- Providing essential health and safety services
- Restoring permanent power and water supplies
- Re-establishing transportation routes
- Providing food and temporary shelter
- Organising financial assistance to help people rebuild their lives.
Long-term recovery:
- Rebuilding homes and other structures
- Repairing and rebuilding infrastructure
- Re-opening businesses and schools
35
What are 2 strategies for reducing impacts?
- Modifying the event
- Modifying vulnerability and resilience
36
How can a country modify the event?
Volcanic eruptions may be modified by using lava diversion barriers for example Mount Etna, Italy, 1983 by spring sea water to cool and solidify a lava flow or drain in crater lakes to reduce the risk of lahars. Tsunamis may be modified by changing offshore coastal environments, for example with offshore barriers such as in Ofunato Bay, Japan, higher and stronger sea walls, or mangrove forests. Engineers and scientists have important roles here in terms of making full use of technology to monitor and predict volcanoes and tsunamis, and an attempt is still being made with earthquakes. GNS Science, in New Zealand, use satellite aircraft remote sensing data, including Light detection and ranging and synthetic aperture radar both of which create high-resolution 3-D data for the Earth's surface.
37
How can a country modify vulnerability and resilience?
Before an event risk mapping can be completed, such as predicting the liquefaction areas or Lahar routes. This could be used to produce land-use zoning and street planning laws to remove people and property from areas at high risk from volcanic eruptions such as Mount Etna, or low land coasts facing possible tsunamis. Land reform may help by relocating ownership to less risky areas, encouraging an increase in food production and stockpiling, or diversification of the economic base so that not all jobs are lost in this disaster. Technology can be used to establish monitoring and warning systems, for example, the tsunami warning system in the Pacific gives people time to evacuate. Technology can help people also construct buildings that are more hazard resistant such as the counterweight near the top of Taipei or the base isolators under New Zealand's old parliament building in Wellington, backed up by enforced building codes.
38
Apply the China case study to the hazard management cycle:
Pre-disaster:
- Corrupt government officials often ignored building codes and accepted bribes to allow builders to take shortcuts. The resulting poorly constructed buildings cannot withstand ground shaking and collapsing.
- The effects of corruption were particularly evident in Sichuan with thousands of schools falling down.
Response:
- China is wealthy and had the money to pay for rescue and aid efforts.
- The government pledged $US10bn for rebuilding works, and Chinese banks wrote off the debts of any survivors who did not have insurance.
- within hours, over 130,000 soldiers and relief workers were sent to the affected areas. Troops parachuted or hiked in the isolated mountainous areas to reach survivors.
- Medical services were quickly restored, which helped to avoid the outbreaks of disease in Haiti.
- China's strong central government was able to respond quickly and effectively to the disaster.
Post-disaster:
- Within 2 weeks, temporary homes, roads and bridges were being built.
- China has tough building codes, is investing in safer buildings and better infrastructure, and has the resources to respond quickly to hazardous events.
- In the long term, the Chinese government saw the 2008 earthquake as an opportunity to rebuild the area from scratch.
39
Apply the Japan case study to the hazard management cycle:
Pre-disaster:
- Strict building regulations meant that Japanese buildings were better able to withstand the earthquake.
- Low level of corruption meant that building regulations were strictly enforced.
- They had well-developed disaster plans including 10-meter-high walls, evacuation shelters and evacuation routes, which helped to reduce the loss of life. Many offices and homes were equipped with quick emergency kits. An early warning system that detected the earthquake one minute in advance – giving people some warning.
- Japan failed to take into account the impact of a tsunami on a nuclear plant.
Response:
- the Japanese government responded immediately. Within 24 hours, 110,000 defence troops have been mobilised.
- Immediately after the earthquake, all radio and TV stations switched to official earthquake coverage, which told people what was happening and what they should do.
- The bank of Japan offered US$138B to Japanese banks so that they could keep operating.
- Japan quickly accepted help from rescue recovery teams from over 20 countries.
Post-disaster:
- The shutdown of Japan's nuclear power station had an effect around the world. Japan increased demand for natural gas which pushed the price up. On the other hand, the event at Fukushima leads to Germany shutting down company all of its nuclear plants.
- Japan started to import fossil fuels: The price of electricity went up by 20%.
- Nuclear power stations closest to the epicentre were shut down.
40
Apply the Christchurch case study to the hazard management cycle:
Pre-disaster:
- Scientists did not even know there was a geologic fault there until the September 2010 earthquake. Christchurch was understandably unprepared for activity on a fault that was previously unidentified.
Response:
- Around $6-7 million of international aid was provided
- The Red Cross and other charities supplied aid workers
- Rescue crews from all over the world, including the UK, USA, Taiwan and Australia, provided support.
- 30,000 residents were provided with chemical toilets.
Post-disaster:
- The construction of around 10,000 affordable homes.
- Water and sewage were restored by August 2011.
- The New Zealand government provided temporary housing.
- Many NGOs provided support, including Save the Children.
- Adding steel reinforced concrete walls within existing wall cavities, bracing floors and roofs with plywood diaphragms.
41
Apply the Haiti case study to the hazard management cycle:
Pre-disaster:
- A lack of preparation meant that government officials, police and emergency services just didn't know what to do when the earthquake struck.
- Many Haitians were and still are living in poverty so didn't have the resources to prepare for or to cope with the effects of the earthquake
- A high level of corruption at the national level and local government level has led to a lack of resources and commitment to improving the country's infrastructure and living standards.
Response:
-A high level of corruption at the national level and local government level has led to a lack of resources and commitment to improving the country's infrastructure and living standards.
Post-disaster:
- By 2015, five years after the earthquake, Haiti was still recovering from an international US$13bn of aid has been donated.
- Progress has been slow. By 2015, 80,000 Haitians are still living in temporary housing problems.
- New buildings, roads and schools have been built and health statistics have improved. And there are signs of the Haitian government is getting stronger and more able to cope with natural threats.
- Hurricane Sandy was heading towards Haiti, and the government responded – by warning systems that the storm is coming and telling them to go to higher ground. After the storm, the government also took a leading role in organising international aid.
42
What is the park's response curve?
- The Park model shows how countries or regions might respond after a hazardous event.
- It is used as a framework to understand the time dimensions of resilience; from the time the hazard strikes to when the community returns to normal operation.
The model can be used to help plan and understand risk and resilience; it can also be used to prepare for future events.
- The model can also be used to compare different places with the same disaster events (e.g. Indian Ocean vs. Japan Tsunamis.
43
What does parks disaster response also take into account?
- That hazards are inconsistent. Things such as the magnitude of the hazard, the development of places affected and the amount of aid received change over time.
- All hazards have different impacts and responses (Haiti for example is very short-term and happened quickly whereas Montserrat took place over several years).
Wealthier countries have different curves as they can recover faster.
- In hazard events that affect multiple countries, each country has its own curve.
44
Give 3 examples of the graph it can produce?
A: The disaster has a small impact on the quality of life and a short response phase. Quality of life begins to improve quickly and returns to normal within a few months.
B: There is a greater impact on quality of life compared to A. Reconstruction takes longer. The mitigation improves the quality of life meaning the community is better prepared for the next hazard.
C: The disaster has a major impact on the quality of life, and a slow reconstruction phase. Even years later quality of life has not returned to levels before the disaster.
45
What are the strategies for modifying the event? Mitigation
- Land use zoning
- Diverting lava flows
- GIS mapping
- Hazard resistant design and engineering defences
46
What are the strategies for modifying the event? Adaptation
- High-tech monitoring
- Crisis mapping
- Modelling hazard impact
- Public education
- Community preparedness and adaptation
47
What is land use zoning?
A process where local government planners regulate how land in a community may be used.
In areas at risk of volcanoes and tsunamis, land-use zoning is an effective way to protect people and property. Areas at risk divided into the zone is based on the likely type and level of damage.
In areas with high risk:
- settlements are limited if allowed at all.
- certain types of facilities are prohibited; those that pose a risk if damage or essential services.
- some communities may be resettled.
- development in areas with natural protection will be limited.
A new signing is coming in HIC but less so in developing countries.
48
What is diverting lava flows?
There's been a range of methods to develop lava flows these include building barriers and digging channels:
While some have been successful, they have, in general, been fairly ineffective as:
- The path taken by lava is hard to predict.
- The terrain has to be suitable.
- Stopping the lava from going towards one - Community may redirect it towards another.
Lava diversion was successful in the 1973 eruption of Heimaey island in Iceland. The flows were heading towards the main port and harbour but were successfully redirected.
49
What is GIS mapping?
Can be used in all stages of the disaster management cycle, for example, to identify where evacuation routes should be placed or to help with rescue and recovery options.
GIS can look at things such as:
- The locations and rough population sizes of major towns and cities.
- The areas affected by the quake.
- The locations of airports and airstrips.
Together this information can help agencies to identify the most need areas, and locate places where emergency helicopters or aircraft can land with supplied and relief.
50
What is Hazard resistant design and engineering defences?
Collapsing buildings are one of the main causes of debt damage during tectonic events. Designing and constructing safe buildings is key to protecting life and property.
- New buildings and structures can be designed to resist ground shaking.
- Roofs near volcanoes can be slow to reduce the build-up of ash.
- Buildings near tsunami risk zones can be elevated and anchored.
- Existing buildings can be retrofitted to make them safer.
- Protective structures can be built.
51
What is High tech monitoring?
Monitoring systems already allow advanced warnings of volcanic eruptions and tsunamis.
- Early warning systems: Use of scientific instruments to detect signs that volcanic eruptions or tsunamis. Relevant authorities can then be informed about an issue rapidly a lot to communities.
- Satellite communication technology: Helps to transmit data from monitoring equipment so that early warning can be issued e.g. the Indian Ocean tsunami warning system, which transmits data from the seafloor to stations every 15 seconds.
- Mobile phone technology: To communicate rapid warnings and coordinate preparation activities. The Japanese government sent out text messages via mobile phones warning of the earthquake. E.g 2011
52
What is crisis mapping?
In the days immediately following the 2010 Haitian earthquake, the lack of good infrastructure and communication systems hampered rescue and aid efforts. Concerned about the crisis, members of Ushahidi set up a map for Haiti; local people began providing information via social media/text. These locations were plotted onto maps and placed online so that rescue and aid could be directed
This process is also known as crisis mapping and uses crowd-sourced information to accurately map areas struck by disaster. Now aid agencies are beginning to use crisis mapping before a disaster happens.
53
What is modelling the hazard impact?
Computer models allow scientists to predict it impacts of hazard events and communities. Information is fed into computer systems, which then model the impacts of a disaster. They also allow scientists to compare the effects of different scenarios. These computer models can then be used by decision-makers to help them develop plans and strategies to reduce the impacts of hazard events and target resources more effectively.
54
What is public education?
Good education and better public awareness can help reduce vulnerability and prevent hazards from becoming disasters. Public education helps people to understand what they can do to protect themselves before, during and after a hazardous event.
It includes:
- Regularly practising emergency procedures (e.g. children in Japan practice earthquake drills 4x a year and the Japanese government also hold an annual disaster prevention day, in which over 2 million regularly participate.
- Encouraging households and workplaces to create emergency preparedness for kids.
- Providing effective educational materials, such as information on constructing buildings to withstand earthquakes.
55
What is community preparedness and adaptation?
Community-based preparation is becoming increasingly important. People living in at-risk communities are often best placed to develop suitable plans and education. This is especially true and low-income countries, where governments may not have the resources to invest heavily in disaster planning.
Local knowledge is an important part of community preparedness. During the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, the elders of Thailand's American tribe noticed unusual movement in the Bay of Bengal and advised villages to run to the hilltop. Minutes later the tsunami struck; 200 lives were saved.
- Creating a list of vulnerable people who need special assistance. - Organising practice evaluation drugs.
- Providing first-aid courses.
56
Who are the key players in modifying losses?
- Insurance companies
- Aid donars
- Governments
- NGOs
- Local communities
57
How do insurance companies modify the loss?
- Several tectonic disasters have caused damage worth billions of dollars (Tohoku, Katrina etc). Since 2000, all disasters totalled have cost approximately $1.3 trillion (UNISDR estimate).
- Insurance coverage can help communities to recover from disasters; it provides individuals and businesses with the money they need to repair and rebuild. However, in many countries, few people have insurance for tectonic hazards
- Property loss, fires or explosions caused by a volcanic blast, airborne shock waves, ash, dust or lava flow.
- Generally do not cover shock waves or tremors caused by the eruption.
58
How do aid donors modify the loss?
Aid comes from many sources such as governments, intergovernmental organisations (such as the United Nations) and non-governmental organisations (NGOs).
Aid comes in many forms (cash, personnel, services or equipment). It can be distributed straight to the government of the affected country or it can be controlled directly by aid agencies and foreign governments.
- There may be corrupt or poor distribution systems (hence why the donating governments can choose to maintain control of their aid)
It doesn’t encourage self-help or a bottom-up approach to disaster management at a local level.
In Haiti (2010), Nepalese aid workers were also implicated in the introduction of cholera
- Emergency aid= Water was handed out in Burma after flooding.
Short term= Temporary tents in Kashmir, Pakistan.
Long term aid= Rebuilding homes in Haiti.
59
How do governments modify the loss?
In HIC countries such as Japan and the USA, insured losses are relatively low (25-30%), despite governments working alongside insurance companies. In developing countries this disaster insurance is often unaffordable.
60
How do NGOs modify the loss?
Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) play a crucial role in disaster management. They are especially important in disasters where the local government is struggling to respond, or doesn’t have the resources to do so (Haiti).
- They can provide funds, coordinate search-and-rescue efforts, and help to develop reconstruction plans.
- Many NGOs are involved in all states of the hazard-management cycle and often remain in affected areas for years.
61
How do local communities modify the loss?
When a disaster strikes, local people are the first to respond and who often play an important role in the community’s recovery.
- They are crucial in the immediate search-and-rescue efforts.
- In remote or isolated communities, aid takes a long time to arrive.
- Therefore they need to undertake the recovery steps themselves.
- Community groups are also involved in long-term strategies for rebuilding and improving resilience.
Afghanistan (2015)
After an earthquake in October 2015, villagers in mountain communities set up small groups to travel to the more remote areas to help with search and rescue efforts.
62
What was the Pakistan earthquake?
On October 8th 2005, a devastating 7.6 magnitude the quake struck South Asia. Pakistan and Kashmir were particularly badly hit.
- 73,000 people died, including 17,000 children.
- 128,309 people were injured, and 3.5 million were left homeless.
- Roads, water/sanitation facilities and communication systems were destroyed.
- The areas affected were largely mountainous, which made both search and rescue and longer-term reconstruction difficult.
63
Pakistan earthquake (2005) link to modify the loss:
NGOs responded immediately, by providing:
- Over 500,000 tents and 6 million blankets.
- Safe water for over 700,000 people
- Food and clothing.
- Emergency medical care.
Short-term aid included:
- More permanent shelters were built
- Water supplies were re-established
- Roads were rebuilt or re-routed
- In 2007, most NGOs (including the Red Cross and Oxfam) moved their aid from relief operations into the recovery phase. Over the next five years:
- New schools, medical centres and homes were built.
- Community based disaster risk reduction programmes were developed.
