Identity
def: different “selves” that an individual may take on in social interaction
Three levels of identity + Example
1) Personal (personality): unique to individuals (ex: introvert)
2) Role identities (roles): positions in groups (ex: mother, student)
3) Social identities (groups): groups that we are members of that shape our identities (ex: Mexican, Democrat)
Causes and consequences of group identification + examples
Causes: Social Identity Theory (SIT) –> tendency to categorize when they see contrast, no group until an out-group is salient
—> ex: poor realizing how poor they are when they see a rich neighborhood
Consequences: out-group animosity, in-group favoritism
—> ex: Dems vs. Reps
Accentuation Effect (Tajfel 1959)
- To understand the effect of categorization on perceptions of group members
- People perceived greater similarity of physical objects within sets and less similarity between sets
“Minimal group” experiment (basic findings)
- show groups can form from
even small differences - People were willing to forgo profits to maximize advantage over the out-group
3 ways to activate overarching identities + examples
1) By seeing some significant similarity
2) By working towards some common goal
3) By having a common enemy
ex: Robber’s cave experiment 1) sharing money to watch same movie 2) fixing water supply 3) vandals that broke water
“Robber’s Cave” experiment (basic findings)
- Pursuing a common goal creates group identification
- Separation and competition can generate inter-group conflict
- Cooperative pursuit of common goals (and shared success) can foster solidarity, cohesion, and liking
Kitty Genovese
Kitty was raped and killed outside her home and 38 witnesses saw or heard the attack, and none of them called the police or came to her aid.
Good Samaritan Experiment
- its not about person but whether they are willing to help in moment
- give speech across campus, meet with a man in need
- rules and learning of goodness did not impact response to helping
Bystander effect + example
the presence of others inhibits helping
ex) Kitty Genovese which death was witnessed by 30+ but no one said/did anything
Identifiable victim effect
name and identifiable victim had higher donations
Altruism vs. egoism
Altruistic: Motivated by the desire to increase another’s welfare.
Egoistic: Motivated by the desire to increase one’s own welfare.
Principle of reproducibility
idea that it should be possible to conduct a scientific study again
Direct and conceptual replications
Direct replication: effort to redo study as closely as possible, exact same tools, people etc.
Conceptual replication: test idea under different conditions, but using same ideas
Questionable research practices (5)
1) Multiple dependent variables
2) Arbitrary data exclusions
3) Optional stopping
4) Arbitrarily tweaking and re-running models
5) Small samples
Pre-registration
publicly posting a research plan before conducting a study, protects integrity of significance testing
Open Science
publicly posting data and materials
Negotiation
decision-making process in which two or more people attempt to agree on how to allocate shared resources
Distributive negotiation
ex) old car
- typically involves a single issue (e.g., price)
- Fixed-sum structure: one party’s gain is another’s loss
-Conflicting interests: each party trying to maximize share
Integrative negotiation + example
ex) job interview
- Involves multiple issues, differences in priorities and interests
- Successful outcomes involve value creation (expanding the pie), not just value claiming (slicing the pie)
Zone of Potential Agreement
- the space between two party’s reservation points (bottom line)
Naïve realism + example
belief that our subjective experience is objective
example: thinking that item is not worth it to sell, but another person actually sees value in it
Defining success in negotiation (5)
1) getting more than reservation price.
2) getting at least half of the bargaining zone
3) strengthening a relationship.
4) beating the other person
5) not being humiliated
Norm of reciprocity
try to repay what another person has provided
- desire to repay small favors fade with time but, notable gifts can be long lived
