1
Q
Psychology
A
- Scientific study of behavior
- 16th century - Greek words:
- “psyche” = soul, spirit, or mind
- ”logos” = study of a subject matter
- these were put together to define a topic of study (psychology)
- Emerged in 1830’s
- Originated in Germany
- Has intellectual roots in physiology and philosophy
2
Q
Wilhelm Wundt
A
- DEFINED PSYCHOLOGY AS the scientific study of conscious experience (will be on test)
- (1832-1920) University of Leipzig, Germany
- Campaigned to make psychology an independent discipline
- Established first laboratory for the study of psychology in 1879
- Trained psychologists who spread throughout Europe and North America
3
Q
John B. Watson
A
- 1878-1958 United States
- He was a Behaviorist
- Founder of Behaviorism
- His definition of psychology: a scientific study of behavior
- Behavior = -Overt (observable) response or activity by an organism
- Radical reorientation of psychology as a science of observable behavior- Study of consciousness abandoned - Ignored emotional (feelings and cognition) aspect - Said to study psychological, had to be able to be observed - Nurture, Not nature (He didn’t believe in biological aspect, just how you were raised (environment)) - (“Give me a dozen infants, well-formed, and my own special world to bring them up and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select -- a doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief, and yes, even beggarman and thief…” - Behaviorist school of thought emphasized the environment
- Contributed to rise of animal research
- Responsible for “Little Albert” study
- We shouldn’t ignore what he did (emotions) because they led to people’s behaviors?
4
Q
Behavior
A
-Overt (observable) response or activity by an organism
5
Q
Sigmund Freud
A
1856-1939
- Austrian physician
- Approach to psychology grew
out of efforts to treat mental disorders
-Developed psychoanalytic theory
- Emphasis on unconscious processes influencing behavior (aka Freudian slip)
- Did a lot of work with mental disorders
6
Q
Cognition
A
Mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge
-1950s and 60s: Major progress in the study of cognitive development, memory, language, and problem solving (these three are probably most important)
7
Q
Pshyiology
A
Biological bases of behavior
- 1950s, and 60s: many discoveries which highlighted the interrelations among mind, body, and behavior
- ”biological” = genes (things that can’t really be seen)
8
Q
1950s in Psychology
A
- Saw growth of the practical side of psychology
- Clinical Psychology: the branch of psychology concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of psychological problems and disorders
-WWII just ended, so VA funded for more people to study psychology
9
Q
Modern Definition of Psychology?
A
The science that studies behavior and the physiological and cognitive processes that underlie it, and it is the profession that applies the accumulated knowledge of this science to practical problems
- It IS a science now (not just therapy)
- It’s a profession
- Hasn’t always been considered a science
- Majority of psychologists work at universities/colleges and medical settings
10
Q
Clinical Psychology
A
- The branch of psychology concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of psychological problems and disorders
- Largest subfield
11
Q
Themes Related to Psychology as a Field of Study
A
- Theme 1: Psychology is empirical (based within science and research)
- Theme 2: Psychology is theoretically diverse (lots of different theories that drive/have driven psychology)
- Theme 3: Psychology evolves in a sociohistorical context (has a long history)
- Theme 4: Behavior is determined by multiple causes (biology, nature, nurture, and environment all take part)
- Theme 5: Behavior is shaped by cultural heritage (nature vs. nurture)
- Theme 6: Heredity and environment jointly influence behavior (nature vs. nurture again)
- Theme 7: People’s experience of the world is highly subjective (the way I perceive the world is different from how others view the world (not one size fits all))
12
Q
Research Methods
A
- Differing approaches to the observation, measurement, manipulation, and control of variables in empirical studies, and includes
- Experimental research methods
- Descriptive/correlational research methods
13
Q
Experimental Research
A
- Looks for causes
- Includes experiments
- Advantages: conclusions about cause-and-effect can be drawn (getting to look at cause-and-effect relationships)
- Disadvantages:
- Artificial nature of experiments
- Ethical and practical issues
14
Q
Experiments
A
- It’s a manipulation of one variable under controlled conditions so that resulting changes in another variable can be observed (allows for detection of cause-and-effect relationships)
- Independent Variable: condition or event varied by the experimenter to see its impact on another variable (what experimenter manipulates)
- Dependent Variable: variable affected by manipulation (depends on manipulation of the independent variable) (it’s what’s being measured)
- How does X affect y?
- X = IV and Y = DV
-Experimental Group: subjects who receive some special treatment in regard to the independent variable
- Control Group: similar subjects who do not receive the special treatment
- Logic: -two groups alike in all respects, except for manipulation of independent variable
- manipulative independent variable for one group only
- resulting differences in the two groups must be due to the independent variable
- Logic: -two groups alike in all respects, except for manipulation of independent variable
-Extraneous and Confounding Variables
- Variations in designing experiments:
- Expose a single group to different conditions
- Manipulate more than other independent variable
- Use more than one dependent variable
- Can manipulate two or more independent variables (the main advantage is that it allows an experimenter to see whether two variables interact)
- LOOK IN CHAPTER 2 PACKET
15
Q
Schacter’s Experiment
A
- About shocking the patient and if they wanted to be with others or wait alone
- Dealt with affiliation
- Results of Schachter’s Study of Affiliation: The percentage of people wanting to wit with others was higher in the high-anxiety (experimental) group than in the low-anxiety (control) group, consistent with Schachter’s hypothesis that anxiety would increase the desire for affiliation.
- IV = anxiety (high or low)
- DV = Affiliation
- Control Group = low-anxiety group
- Experimental Group = high-anxiety group
- Evidence from his experiment supported his hypothesis
- *LOOK IN CHAPTER 2 PACKET
16
Q
Descriptive/Correlational Methods
A
- Used when a researcher cannot manipulate the variables under study
- Naturalistic Observation
- Case Studies
- Survey Research
17
Q
Correlation
A
- Correlation is not causation!
- When two variables are related to each other, they are correlated (related)
- Correlation Coefficient = statistic used to summarize degree of relationship
- Correlation expressed as a number between 0 to 1
- Can be positive or negative
- Numbers closer to 1 (+ or -) indicate stronger relationship
- Higher correlation coefficients = increased ability to predict one variable based on the other (SAT/ACT scores moderately correlated with first year college GPA
- 2 variables may be highly correlated, but not causally related
- studies show a positive correlation between smoking and depression, but does that mean smoking causes depression or vice versa?
- Third variable problems (environment of person, relationship issues, how easily person can get addicted, etc.) can also influence smoking/depression.
18
Q
Positive vs. Negative Correlation
A
- Positive Correlation: 2 variables change together in same direction (ex: studying and test scores)
- Negative Correlation: The variables move in opposite directions; as X goes up, y goes down (or vice versa) (ex: the more you exercise, the less likely you are to get diseases)
- +0.5 and -0.5 are same in strength (+ and - just indicate direction)
19
Q
Three possible relations between correlated variables?
A
- If variables X and Y are correlated, does X cause Y, does Y cause X, or does some hidden variable, Z, account for the changes in both X and Y?
- As relationship between smoking and depression shows, a correlation alone does not provide the answer.
-We don’t know if X causes Y, or if Y causes X.
20
Q
Naturalistic Observation
A
- A researcher engages in careful observation of behavior without intervening directly with subjects
- Benefits: no placebo, naturality act of people (not synthetic setting)
- Ex: Levine study: pace of life in different countries (U.S. is faster than Europe)
21
Q
Case Studies
A
- An in-depth investigation of an individual subject
- Studying ONE person
- Can include: interview/Q&A, interview/talk to the people close to the subject, directly observe subject (especially nice if naturalistic observation, psychological testing (ex: IQ), and examining records (like medical)
- Disadvantages: cannot generalize!
22
Q
Survey Research
A
- Researchers use questionnaires or interviews to gather information about specific aspects of participants’ behavior
- Advantages: cost and time effective, social desirability bias (subjects can under/over report)
23
Q
Advantages and Disadvantages of Descriptive/Correlational Research?
A
- Advantages:
- explore questions that cannot be examined experimentally
- Disadvantages:
- Investigators cannot control events to isolate cause and effect (this will be on exam)
24
Q
Possible flaws in research? (Will definitely be on test)
A
- Sampling Bias (know difference between sample and population – sample comes from population, which is the whole group of people the research is about)
- Placebo Effects (subjects have expectations, aren’t sure if they have it or not, and change behavior; ex: alcohol vs. mocktails thing)
- Distortions in self-report data:
- Social desirability bias
- Misunderstood questions
- Memory errors
- Responding positively or negatively to all items
- Experimenter Bias
- The double-blind solution
25
Relationship between the population and the sample?
- Process of drawing inferences about a population based on a sample only works if sample is reasonably representative or the population.
- Sample is representative if its demographic makeup is similar to that of the population
- If some groups in population are overrepresented or underrepresented in the sample, inferences about the population may be skewed or inaccurate
26
Two major types of cells in the nervous system?
- Glia
| - Neurons
27
Glia Cells
- Main function: to support neurons by, among other things, supplying them with nutrients and removing waste material (they have protective function for neurons)
- Also provide structural support and insulation for neurons
- In human brain, there are about ten glia cells for every neuron (so there are more glial cells in nervous system)
28
Neurons
- Cells that receive, integrate, and transmit information
- Includes:
- Soma
- Dendrites
- Axon
- Myelin Sheath
- Terminal Buttons
- Synapses
29
Soma
-Cell body contains the cell nucleus and much of the chemical machinery (to help it function smoothly) common to most cells
30
Dendrites
- Branch-like growths off the soma that are specialized to receive information from other cells
- Help to communicate
31
Axon
- Long single fiber
- Specializes in transmitting and sending out information to other neurons or to muscles or glands
- Wrapped in a white, fatty substance that serves as an insulator and helps speed up the transmission of signals (myelin sheath)
32
Myelin Sheath
- A white, fatty substance that serves as an insulator around the axon and speeds up the transmission of signals; covering/insulation for axon
- In people suffering from multiple sclerosis (MS), some myelin sheaths degenerate, slowing or preventing nerve transmission to certain muscles
33
What is MS (multiple sclerosis) associated with?
The degeneration/loss of myelin sheath.
34
Terminal Buttons
- End of the axon
- Small knobs that secrete neurotransmitters, which are chemicals (these chemicals serve as messengers that may activate neighboring neurons)
35
Synapses
- Connection between neurons
- Junction where information is transmitted from one neuron to another
- Once action potential reaches certain point, neurotransmitters are released
- When a neural impulse reaches axon’s terminal buttons, it triggers the release of chemical messengers (called neurotransmitters)
- Then, neurotransmitter molecules diffuse across synaptic cleft and bind to receptor sites on postsynaptic neuron
- A specific neurotransmitter can bind only to receptor sites that its molecular structure will fit into (much like lock and key)
36
Resting Potential of neuron
- The sable, negative charge when the cell is inactive; neuron isn’t stimulated
- Charge is roughly about -70 millivolts, roughly one-twentieth of the voltage of a flashlight battery
37
Action Potential
- Very brief shift in a neuron’s electrical charge that travels along an axon
- When neuron is stimulated, charge becomes less negative and then positive
- Size of an action potential isn’t affected by strength of the stimulus (a weaker stimulus doesn’t produce a weaker action potential)
- All-or-None Law: If neuron receives a stimulus of sufficient strength, it fires, but if it receives a weaker stimulus, it doesn’t; it either fires or it doesn’t, there’s no middle ground; threshold is reached or not (will be on test)
- All action potentials are same size
38
Synaptic Cleft
Gap/space between postsynaptic and presynaptic neurons that neurotransmitters go through
39
Synaptic Vesicles
House neurotransmitters
40
Receiving Signals -- Postsynaptic Potentials
Five steps:
1. Synthesis and storage of neurotransmitter molecules in synaptic vesicles
2. Release of neurotransmitter molecules into synaptic cleft
3. Binding of neurotransmitters at receptor sites on postsynaptic membrane
4. Inactivation (by enzymes) or removal (drifting away) of neurotransmitters
5. Reuptake of neurotransmitters sponged up by the presynaptic neuron
- Specific neurotransmitter can only bind to specific sites
41
Neurotransmitters
- Acetylcholine (ACh)
- Dopamine (DA)
- Norepinephrine (NE)
- Serotonin
- GABA
- Endorphins
- They affect behaviors and body movements
42
Acetylcholine (ACh)
- Characteristics and Relations to Behavior:
- Released by motor neurons controlling skeletal muscles (including talking and breathing?)
- Contributes to regulation of attention, arousal, and memory
- Some ACh receptors stimulated by nicotine
- Disorders associated with:
- Alzheimer’s Disease
43
Dopamine (DA)
- Characteristics and Relations to Behavior:
- Contributes to control of voluntary movement
- Cocaine and amphetamines elevate activity at DA synapses
- Dopamine circuits in medial forebrain bundle characterized as “reward pathway” and related to addiction
- Disorders associated with:
- Parkinsonism
- Schizophrenic Disorders (if overactive)
- Addictive Disorders
44
Norepinephrine (NE)
- Characteristics and Relations to Behavior:
- Contributes to modulation of mood and arousal
- Cocaine and amphetamines elevate activity at NE synapses
- Think of it as adrenaline
- Disorders associated with:
- Depressive Disorders
45
Serotonin
- Characteristics and Relations to Behavior:
- Involved in regulation of sleep and wakefulness, eating, and aggression/behaviors
- Prozac and similar antidepressant drugs affect serotonin circuits
- Disorders associated with:
- Depressive disorders
- Obsessive-Compulsive Disorders
- Eating Disorders
46
GABA
- Characteristics and Relations to Behavior:
- Serves as widely distributed inhibitory transmitter, contributing to regulation of anxiety and sleep/arousal
- Valium and similar anti anxiety drugs work at GABA synapses
- Inhibitory transmitter related to anxiety/anxiety drugs
- Disorders associated with:
- Anxiety Disorders
47
Endorphins
- Characteristics and Relations to Behavior:
- Resemble opiate drugs (pain killers) in structure and effects
- Play role in pain relief and response to stress
- Contribute to regulation of eating behavior
- Associated with pain, pain relief, and dealing with pain
- Disorders associated with:
- None
48
Which structures belong to the hindbrain?
- Cerebellum
- Medulla
- Pons
49
Cerebellum
- Little brain
- Located in lower part of the brainstem
- Coordinate fine muscle movement and balance (coordination of muscles and balance)
- Affected by alcohol
- 3rd most important part of hindbrain
50
Medulla
- Attached to spinal cord
- Controls unconscious functions, such as breathing and circulation
- Damage to it = death
- Most important part of hindbrain (because of breathing)
51
Pons
- Literally, a “bridge” of fibers connecting the brainstem with the cerebellum; more like a pathway
- Involved in sleep and arousal
- 2nd most important (because of sleep)
52
Midbrain
- Can share duties with hindbrain
- Concerned with certain sensory processes, such as location where things are in space/area/environment
- Origin of an important system of dopamine-related axons; associated with dopamine (WILL be on test)
- Among other things, this dopamine system is involved in the performance of voluntary movement. Abnormal movements associated with Parkinson’s disease are due to degeneration of neurons in this area
53
Reticular Formation
- Running through both the hindbrain and the midbrain is reticular formation
- Contributes to modulation of muscle reflexes, breathing (most important), and pain perception
- Best known for its role in regulation of sleep and wakefulness
- Damage to it = probably lead to death
54
Forebrain
-Includes thalamus and hypothalamus
55
Thalamus
-A structure in the forebrain through which sensory information, except smell, must pass to get to the cerebral cortex
56
Hypothalamus
- ”Hypo” = “below”, so “Hypothalamus” = “Below the thalamus”
- Made up of a number of distinct nuclei
- These nuclei regulate a variety of basic biological drives, including 4 Fs:
- fighting
- fleeing (probably most important?)
- feeding
- fornicating/mating
57
Which sense doesn’t go through the thalamus?
Smell!
58
Limbic System. Structures involved in limbic system?
Important because of 4 Fs (has hypothalamus)
-Broadly defined, it includes parts of the thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala, and other nearby structures
- Appears to contain emotion-tinged “pleasure centers”; when something pleasures us, this system is activated; pleasure center located in this system
- Back in 1950s, Olds and Milner accidentally discovered that a rat would press a lever repeatedly to send brief bursts of electrical stimulation to a specific spot in its brain where electrode was implanted (discovered this by accident)
59
Where are the pleasure centers located in the brain?
- Heaviest concentration appears to be where the medial forebrain bundle (a bundle of axons) passes through the hypothalamus
- Medial forebrain bundle is rich in dopamine-releasing neurons. The rewarding, pleasurable effects of opiate and stimulant drugs (cocaine and amphetamines) may depend on excitation of this dopamine system
60
Hippocampus
-Plays role in memory processes, although exact nature of that role is the subject of debate
61
What does damage to hippocampus lead to?
-Can lead to amnesia
62
Amygdala
- Regulates anxiety
- Deals with fear and emotion
- If overactive = more fear and anxiety
- If underactive = no fear, which can be dangerous
- Recent evidence suggests that it may play a central role in the learning of fear responses
63
The Cerebrum
- Connects the 2 hemispheres
- Helps the 2 hemispheres to communicate
- It’s cut to stop/reduce seizures
64
Cerebral Cortex
- Includes 4 lobes:
- Occipital = contributes to vision; helps to process visual information
- Parietal = sense of touch
- Temporal = auditory senses and processing
- Frontal = movement of the muscles
65
Detecting Hereditary Influence: Family Studies
- They examine trait resemblance of relatives
- Should find more similarity among relatives who share more genes
- Can show that trait runs in families
- But cannot clearly demonstrate hereditary influence
- Can help detect how it affects population
- Identical twins share most genes (100%)
- Can’t always show cause
66
Statistical procedures are used during which step in conducting a scientific investigation?
Analyze the data and draw conclusions.
67
The tendency for survey subjects to provide answers that place them in a favorable light is referred to as?
Socially desirable responding.
68
Determining the location of specific genes on specific chromosomes is referred to as?
Genetic mapping.
69
Which of the following structures is NOT part of the hindbrain? Cerebellum, pons, medulla, or thalamus?
Thalamus.
70
After inhaling a secret substance, John displays more empathy and is more trusting in others. It is likely that the secret substance contained…?
Oxytocin.
71
Information is received by a neuron through the ______ and is transmitted toward other neurons through the ______.
Dendrites; Axon
72
An action potential is…?
An electrical signal that travels along the axon of a neuron.
73
The carriers of genetic information in the form of DNA are the…
Chromosomes.
74
Which part of the brain is MOST likely to play a major role in the work of artists, architects, and engineers, who must rely heavily on visual-spatial skills?
The right hemisphere.
75
The difference in the flow rates of sodium and potassium ions across the cell membrane when a neuron is at rest leads to…
A slightly higher concentration of negatively charged ions inside the cell.
76
In family studies, researchers asses hereditary influence by…
Comparing blood relatives to see how much they resemble one another on specific traits.
77
Handyman Bob just hit his thumb with a hammer; the sensation will be transmitted to the central nervous system by ____ nerve fibers.
Afferent.
78
The main reason for the characterization of the left hemisphere as the ‘dominant” hemisphere was…
The evidence that the left hemisphere usually processes language.
79
If the left hemisphere of the brain were damaged, which part of the body would be MOST directly affected?
The right half.
80
Nerves outside the skull and spine compromise the…?
Peripheral Nervous System.
81
The largest and most complex part of the human brain is the…
Cerebrum.
82
Cells found in the nervous system that insulate, nourish, and remove waste products from neurons are known as…?
Glia.
83
In summarizing recent research in neuroscience, science writer Ronald Kotulak concluded that which period is critically important to an individual’s brain development?
The first 3 years of life.
84
The notion that heritable characteristics that provide a survival or reproductive advantage are more likely to be passed on to subsequent generations is known as?
Natural Selection.
85
The cells of the nervous system that do the work for receiving, integrating, and transmitting information are the?
Neurons.
86
Electrical stimulation of its lateral hypothalamus causes an animal to overeat and become obese. Therefore, we would expect that lesioning the lateral hypothalamus would produce?
Under Eating and weight loss.
87
The central nervous system consists of?
The brain and spinal cord.
88
Which of the following parts of the brain is MOST likely to play a major role in the work of artists, architects, and engineers, who must rely heavily on visual-spatial skills?
The right hemisphere.
89
What has NOT been demonstrated through scientific research?
Young infants exposed to classical music show higher cognitive performance in preschool.
90
It appears that most human characteristics are influenced by?
More than one pair of genes.
91
Donald and Ronald are identical twins who have been raised apart, in separate adoptive homes. However, both brothers have developed the same psychological disorder. This information could be used as evidence to suggest that…
Genetic factors have more influence than environmental factors in this disorder.
92
The difference in the flow rates of sodium and potassium ions across the cell membrane when a neuron is at rest leads to…
A slightly higher concentration of negatively charged ions inside the cell.
93
The brain structure that appears to play a vital role in the regulations of body temperature, hunger, and thirst is the…?
Hypothalamus.
94
Research has revealed that most dreams are?
About fairly normal activities.
95
The negative effect of recreational drugs that results from the drug’s impact on the individual’s behavior is referred to as?
An indirect effect.
96
A progressive decrease in one’s response to a drug with repeated and prolonged use is called?
Tolerance.
97
The fact that the importance people place on dreams varies across societies BEST illustrates which of the textbook’s unifying themes?
Our behavior is shaped by our cultural heritage.
98
What is good advice for avoiding sleep problems?
- Minimize consumption of stimulants such as caffeine and nicotine
- Avoid daytime naps if you’re having trouble sleeping at night
- Establish daytime exercise program
- Do NOT vary the time when you go to bed at night.
99
If you were awakened while you are experiencing rapid eye movements, you probably would report that you had…?
Been dreaming.
100
Compared to young adults, infants sleep for a _____ period of time each day and spend a _____ proportion of their total sleep time in REM sleep.
Longer; larger
101
John need to continue to take doses of morphine to avoid withdrawal illness symptoms. John is demonstrating?
Physical dependence.
102
For the past week, Laura has had difficulty falling asleep at night. Even though she goes to bed at her usual time, she lays awake for several hours before she finally drifts off to sleep. It appears that Laura is experiencing?
Insonmia.
103
The 24-hour biological cycles found in humans and many other species are known as _____ rhythms.
Circadian.
104
As a person falls into deeper sleep, his or her pattern of brain-wave activity becomes both _____ in frequency and _____ in amplitude.
Slower; higher
105
Stephen wanders about while remaining asleep. Stephen’s condition is called?
Somnambulism.
106
A family of practices that train attention to heighten awareness and bring mental process under greater voluntary control is known as?
Meditation.
107
Research suggests that depriving oneself of adequate sleep is associated with?
- Reduced motor coordination
- Increased risk of auto accidents
- Consuming foods with more calories
- BUT NOT associated with improved grades on exams.
108
Chronic, heavy use of marijuana is associated with?
- Impaired attention and learning
- Increased risk of developing a severe psychotic disorder
- Increased risk for respiratory and pulmonary disease
- BUT NOT associated with reduced levels of testosterone.
109
Psychoactive drugs work primarily by altering?
Neurotransmitter activity in the brain.
110
What does dissociation refer to?
A splitting of mental processes into two separate, simultaneous streams of awareness.
111
Detecting Hereditary Influence: Adoption Studies
- Check trait resemblance between adopted children and their biological and adoptive parents
- If they resemble biological parents, data suggest genetic influence
- If they resemble adoptive parents, data suggest environmental influence
112
Who was really into nurture?
Watson
113
Consciousness
- What is it? (will be on test) The awareness of internal and external stimuli; conscious of what’s going on outside and inside of you
- Internal = thinking, feeling (things people can’t see)
- External = ex: listening to lecture
- Personal awareness regarding:
- External events
- Internal sensations (ex: anxiety attack)
- Your self having experiences
- Your thoughts about having experiences
- Contents of consciousness constantly changing
- William James: “Consciousness is a stream.”
- Consciousness fluctuates throughout the day during both wakefulness and sleep
- Consciousness/awareness varies during most, if not all, mental states
- It varies throughout the day too (times of day you’re more conscious
114
Consciousness and Brain Activity
-Electroencephalograph (EEG) (will be on test) = device that monitors brain waves (electrical currents) occurring at the surface (cortex) of the brain
- Brain waves:
- Amplitude = height
- Frequency = cycles per second
- Beta, Alpha, Theta, and Delta
115
Beta
- look in packet for sign
- Normal waking thought, alert problem solving (ex: the type of waves you should have in class)
- Highest in frequency, low in amplitude
116
Alpha
- look in packet for sign
| - Deep relaxation, blank mind, meditation
117
Theta
- look in packet for sign
| - Light sleep
118
Delta
- look in packet for sign
| - Deep sleep (lowest in frequency, high in amplitude)
119
Circadian Rhythms
- Similar to the rest of nature, humans and other animals also have biological cycles
- Circadian Rhythm = the 24 hour biological cycle found in humans and other animals; when dysregulated, can lead to negative consequences
- primarily regulates sleep patterns; helps sleep/wake cycle
- regulation of blood pressure, urine production, hormonal secretions
- average for humans is 8 hours of sleep and 16 hours awake (kids need more sleep for brain development)
- individuals fall asleep as the body temperature lowers and awaken as it rises
- each individual has an ideal bedtime which leads to better quality sleep
- individuals differ in their ideal bedtime and duration of sleep
120
Circadian Rhythm Disruptions
- Jet Lag = occurs when you fly across several time zones and your biological clock keeps usual time but the official time has changed
- Harder to fall asleep at right time and suffer from poorer-quality sleep (in-and-out; no deep sleep)
- Easier to reset flying east to west than flying west to east
- Roughly one day recovery for each time zone when flying eastward and ⅔ day when flying westward
121
Stages of Sleep
- 4 Stages
| - As we progress through sleep stages, our brain waves slow in frequency and rise in amplitude until we hit REM
122
Stage 1 of Sleep
- About 10-12 minutes
- Brief transitional stage of light sleep
- Alpha and Theta Waves
123
Stage 2 of Sleep
- 10-25 minutes
- Sleep spindles (are the type of waves)
- Mixed EEG activity
124
Stages 3 and 4 of Sleep
- About 30 minutes
- Slow-wave sleep
- Delta waves
125
Stage 5
- REM Sleep
- Vivid dreaming
- Accounts for 20% of total sleep
126
Cycling of Sleep
- We have cycling throughout the night
- Stage 1 only occurs once during sleep
- After one cycle, Stage 1 is replaced by REM sleep
-Sleep Stage Sequence:
1-2-3-2-REM-2-3-2-REM-2-3-2
(3 includes 4 too)
- Most people cycle about 4 times per night
- REM sleep period gets longer as cycle progresses
- Stages 2 and 3 get progressively shorter
127
Age Variations
- Age Trends:
- Babies sleep multiple times a day totaling 16 hours (50% REM)
- Infants sleep becomes more unified (30% REM)
- REM gradually decreases until adolescence
- REM sleep levels off at about 20%
128
Cultural Variations
- Ethnic differences in sleep quality recently reported (self report)
- Whites < African Americans < Hispanics < Asians
- Cultural Trends:
- Co-sleeping (sleeping with kids, could be in same bed or even just having crib next to them) is common in some non-western cultures (frowned upon in the West)
-Siestas are common in some societies
129
Sleep Deprivation
-Impairs attention, (slows down) reaction time, motor skills (more clumsy), decision making, endocrine and immune systems and hormone systems
- Selective deprivation:
- Subjects are awakened whenever they enter REM sleep
- Experience rebound effect (spend extra time in REM for 1 to 3 days to make up for deprivation)
- Can cause sleep disorders
130
REM Sleep. Why is it important?
- Contributes to firming up learning that takes place during the day
- May promote creative insights related to previous learning
- May promote decision making
- Provide insight, communicate well
131
Health Effects of Sleep Loss
- Triggers hormonal changes that increase hunger
- Increases risk for a variety of diseases
- Increases chances of psychological disorders
- Can lead to hallucinations even though you’re not psychotic
- Routinely sleep less than 7 hours and more than 8 hours = increased mortality
- Particularly high if sleep more than 10 hours
132
Sleep Disorders
- Insomnia
- Narcolepsy
- Sleep Apnea
- Somnambulism
- REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD)
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Insomnia
- Chronic problems getting adequate sleep
- Most common
- 50% more common in women (can’t tell exact reason why, but can be due to multiple factors, like hormones, pain level, etc.)
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Narcolepsy
- Sudden onset of sleep during normal waking periods
| - Fall directly into REM sleep
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Sleep Apnea
-Frequent, reflexive gasping for air that wakes a person up and disrupts sleep
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Somnambulism
- Sleepwalking
| - Occurs when a person arises and wanders around while still sleeping
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REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD)
-Marked by troublesome dream enactments during REM sleep
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Dreams
-Content usually familiar (places and people); mundane
- Common themes (as reported by college students):
- Chased/Pursued
- Sexual Experiences
- Falling
- Sex, aggression, misfortune
- Aversive things we would rather forget
- Centered around current internal conflicts
- Day residue = contents of waking life that spill into dreams (Freud)
- Contents of dreams can be influenced by external stimuli
- Dreams have led to amazing discoveries!
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Cultures and Dreams
- Western Societies: dreams are insignificant and meaningless
- Non-Western Societies: dreams are important sources of information about oneself, the future, or the spiritual world
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Altering Consciousness Through Drugs
- Psychoactive drug = chemical substance that modify mental, emotional, or behavioral functioning
- Commonly referred to as recreational drugs
- Alter neurotransmitter activity in the brain (mechanism of action)
- Effects vary depending on age, mood, motivation, personality, past drug experience, and psychology
- Dose, potency, route of administration and setting matter
- Multifactorial causation
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Narcotics
- (Opiates)
- Heroin, morphine, oxycodone
- Principally used as pain relievers
- Can produce relaxing sense of euphoria and wellbeing (“escape from reality)
- Side Effects:
- lethargy
- nausea
- impaired mental and motor functioning
- feeling of fogginess
- Dr.s overprescribe then people get hooked
- Tend to relax people
- Highly addictive because of dopamine release
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Opiates: Mechanism of Action
-Opiates bind to opioid (opiate) receptors which cause an increase in dopamine release
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Sedatives
- Barbiturates, benzodiazepines, quaaludes
- Main function: helps anxiety disorders; associated with anxiety
- Used as sleeping pills and anticonvulsants
- Decrease CNS (central nervous system) activation and behavioral activity
- Induce relaxed, pleasant state of intoxication
- Lowered inhibition
- Side Effects:
- drowsiness
- mood swings
- severely impaired coordination (like when drivers are drunk)
- impaired mental functioning
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Sedatives: Mechanism of Action
-Sedatives bind to GABA receptor causing increased inhibition; calms you down
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Stimulants
- Cocaine, amphetamines, caffeine, nicotine
- Used to treat ADHD and narcolepsy
- Increase CNS activation and behavioral activity
- Produce energetic, elated sense of euphoria and increased alertness; they feel on top of the world
- Side effects:
- restlessness (hard to sleep)
- anxiety
- insomnia
- reduced appetite
- aggression
- paranoia
- can lead to a lot of injuries
-opposite of sedatives
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Cocaine: Mechanism of Action
- Cocaine blocks reuptake of dopamine, NE (norepinephrine), and 5-HT (serotonin) leading to an increased level at the synapse; feeling the effects longer
- reputake: the recycling of neurotransmitters
-cocaine is a type of stimulant
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MDMA
-(Ecstasy); a type of stimulant
- Produces high that lasts for several hours and enhances sensory perception
- users feel warm, friendly, euphoric, sensual
- Side effects:
- increased blood pressure
- muscle tension
- sweating
- bruxism
- may cause stroke, heart attack, seizures, liver damage
- may cause long-lasting damage to brain pathways
- jaw-clenching/grinding the teeth
- kills neurons, dendrites, etc.
-probably highest risk (of death) drug
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MDMA: Mechanism of Action
- MDMA increased release of serotonin and dopamine
| - Also inhibits reuptake of serotonin
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Hallucinogens
- LSD (aka acid), mescaline, psilocybin
- Produce alterations in sensory and perceptual experience, euphoria, hallucinations
- come from plants usually
- similar to MDMA; taken through senses
- Some cultures use in religious ceremonies
- Side effects:
- mood swings
- paranoia
- impaired judgement
- anxiety
- panic
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Hallucinogen: Mechanism of Action
- Hallucinogens are agonists at serotonin (5-HT) receptors
| - serotonin is related to euphoria
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Cannabis
- Marijuana, hashish, THC
- Used to treat glaucoma and chemotherapy-induced nausea
- Produces a mild, relaxed euphoria, enhanced awareness, and altered perception
- Side effects:
- anxiety
- reduced short-term memory
- impaired coordination and mental function
- dry mouth
- increased appetite
-recreational at state level (Nevada), but not at federal level
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THC: Mechanism of Action
-THC binds to cannabinoid receptors which cause an increase in dopamine release
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Alcohol
- Beer, wine, liquor
- Most widely used recreational drug in the US
- Produces a relaxed euphoria that boosts self-esteem, reduces anxiety, and lowers inhibitions (let loose)
- Side effects:
- impaired motor and mental functioning
- mood swings
- depression
- aggression
- decreased REM sleep
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Alcohol: Mechanism of Action
-Agonist at GABA receptor which suppresses CNS activity (relaxing effects); it operates on GABA
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Progression to Substance Use Disorders
- Drug use initiated
- Experience of powerful reward (“Reward Pathway”)
- Initially, individual able to consciously control drug taking behaviors (think of exercising example she gave)
- Continued use results in drug taking behavior becoming habitual/automatic
- Ability to control use deteriorates
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Substance Dependence
-Includes tolerance, physical dependence, and psychological dependence
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Tolerance
- Progressive decrease in person’s responsiveness to a drug as a result of continued use
- As you build tolerance, there's an increase in the amount you take
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Physical dependence
- When a person must continue to take a drug to avoid withdrawal illness
- Withdrawal symptoms are different for each drug
- Could literally die from it; it can kill you
- Rare for hallucinogens
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Psychological dependence
- When a person must continue to take a drug to satisfy intense mental and emotional craving
- Rare for hallucinogens
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Drug replaces GABA. What's would be the drug and its effects?
- Sedative
| - Reduced anxiety and relaxation
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Which drug is more psychological dependence than physical dependence? A lot more psychological dependent affect than psychological?
Cannabis.
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What do opiate drugs tend to do?
- Relieve pain
- Bind onto same receptor cites as body's endorphins
- Mimic endorphins
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Which drug tends to produce tolerance most slowly?
Alcohol.
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If someone took a drug, feeling energetic and on top of the world, what type of drug did they take?
Stimulant (ex: cocaine).
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If a drug produces schizophrenic side effects, which neurotransmitter is it acting on?
Dopamine.
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Dopamine system related to Parkinson's Disease is associated with which part of the brain?
Midbrain.
Psychology 101
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