1
Q
About how long ago did both fungi and plants evolve on land
A
about 500 million years ago
2
Q
about how much of the earths history was just fungi and plants
A
14% of earths history
3
Q
which Eukaryote supergroup is Kingdom Fungi in
A
Unikonta
4
Q
which protists group are fungi most closely related to
A
nucleariids
5
Q
Are fungi more closely related to plants or animals
A
animals
6
Q
what did land plants most likely evolve from
A
multicellular green algae
7
Q
what are the benefits of living in water as a multicellular photoautotroph
A
Support, Dissolves nutrients are easier to pick up, sex is easy, photosynthesis requires water, and drying out is unlikely
8
Q
What are the benefits of plants who come onto land
A
- co2 is more readily available
- soil contains more nutrients on land
- direct sunlight (not reflected away by the water)
- lots of open space
9
Q
What are the challenges for plants who come onto land
A
- desiccation (drying out)
- gravity
- reproduction
10
Q
What is mychorrizae?
A
this is the early relationship between plants and fungi. Plants get nutrients (specifically phosphorus and nitrogen) from the fungi that they wouldn’t be able to get themselves and fungi get food from the sugars that plants are making from the dying plants. Specialized hyphae that can exchange nutrients with plant root cells penetrate the plant cell walls (not the cytoplasm) to absorb the sugars.
11
Q
What are hypae
A
long thin strands that absorb food
12
Q
What is the independent variable in the Mycorhizzae plant growth experiment
A
the addition of fungicide
13
Q
What variables were controlled in the Mycorhizzae plant growth experiment
A
Same aged plants and same environmental conditions
14
Q
What were the results of the Mycorhizzae plant growth experiment
A
plants grow better when fungi is present.
15
Q
What is a food that fungi have a role in producing
A
truffle
16
Q
What is the structure of most multicellular fungi
A
Cell walls are composed of chitin that are strong, flexible, that prevent cells from bursting
Branching structure maximizes surface area to volume ratio
Secretion of hydrolytic enzymes to predigest then absorb food
17
Q
what are fungi walls made of
A
chitin
18
Q
what is a fair ring
A
a ring of mushrooms around the spores
19
Q
what are the 5 major phylogenetic groups of fungi
A
chytrids, zygomycetes, glomeromycetes, ascomycetes, basidiomycetes
20
Q
what is the genetic diversity of fungi
A
some can cause disease and others are simple unicellular organisms
21
Q
What is the definition of a spore?
A
Spores are haploid single cells that can germinate into multicellular organisms, in this case fungal mycelium
22
Q
What are all spores produces by
A
meiosis
23
Q
what eukaryotic supergroup are plants in
A
archaeaplestid
24
Q
which protists group are plants most closely related to
A
charophytes
25
What are the characteristics that all plants share
photoautotrophic, Eukaryotic, multicellular, cellulose cell walls, chlorophylls a + b, sporopollenin, Enbyros, Walled spores produces in sporangia, apical meristems, alternation of generations
26
what is the general evolutionary trait for plants regarding the size dominance of the sporophyte compared to the gametophyte
originally the gametophyte generation was dominant but now the sporophyte generation is dominant
27
What groups out of
- green algae
- moss
- fern
- pine tree
- rose bush
have the trait: chlorophylls a + b
all
28
What groups out of
- green algae
- moss
- fern
- pine tree
- rose bush
have the trait: embryo
moss, fern, pine tree, rose bush
29
What groups out of
- green algae
- moss
- fern
- pine tree
- rose bush
have the trait: vascular tissue
fern, pine tree, rose bush
30
What groups out of
- green algae
- moss
- fern
- pine tree
- rose bush
have the trait: seeds
pine tree and rose bush
31
What groups out of
- green algae
- moss
- fern
- pine tree
- rose bush
have the trait: pollen
pine tree and rose bush
32
What groups out of
- green algae
- moss
- fern
- pine tree
- rose bush
have the trait: flowers and fruits
rose bush
33
what is the difference between a spore and a gamete
Spores are for asexual reproduction and gametes are for sexual reproduction
34
Which one (spore or gamete) grows into a new gametophyte generation?
Spores grow into the new gametophyte generation
35
Which single cell grows into a new sporophyte generation?
Gametophytes grow into the new gamete generation
36
Gymnosperm seeds are “naked” in that they are not enclosed in a fruit. It is very difficult for gymnosperm naked seeds to disperse away from the “grandma” sporophyte plant. Why is dispersal important?
for genetic diversity
37
What is the most common arrangement of female and male cones on a conifer tree?
males are at the bottom, females are at the top
38
flowers
the reproductive structures
39
fruits
the mature flower ovaries that only develop if fertilization has occurred inside the ovary
40
double fertilization
results in a zygote and triploid endosperm
41
life cycle of an angiosperms that are similar to a gymnosperms
the dominant sporophyte generation, microsporangia, megasporangia, pollen, female gametophyte, egg, sperm, zygote, embryo.
42
what is the closest living protist group to plants
Most evidence points to Charophytes as the closest living Protist group to Plants. They shared traits like cellulose synthesizing proteins, flagellated sperm , sporopollenin
43
Name a unicellular Fungus that can perform the process known as alcohol fermentation.
yeast
44
what are the four major plant groups
non-vascular plants
vascular, seedless plants
gymnosperms
angiosperms
45
what is the process where you go from haploid to diploid
fertilization
46
what is the process where you go from diploid to haploid
meiosis
47
what does n + n represent
fungi
48
What are the two key products of alcohol fermentation
ethanol and carbon dioxide
49
What happens to ethanol and carbon dioxide during alcohol fermentation in bread
Ethanol fermentation causes bread dough to rise. Yeast organisms consume sugars in the dough and produce ethanol and carbon dioxide as waste products. The carbon dioxide forms bubbles in the dough, expanding it to a foam.
50
What happens to ethanol and carbon dioxide during alcohol fermentation in beer
Alcoholic fermentation involves the conversion of a sugar source to ethanol and carbon dioxide. This conversion of sugar to alcohol is achieved through yeast metabolism.
51
What happens to ethanol and carbon dioxide during alcohol fermentation in beer
The main metabolic by-products produced by wine yeast during alcohol fermentation are: alcohols, aldehydes, organic acids, esters, and sulfides. Although the content of these metabolic by-products is not high, it has an important impact on the quality of wine.
52
how big can the honey mushroom get
3.5 square miles
53
How many cells think are Hyphae and how is this related to the nutritional mode of Fungi?
Fungal cells extend their DIGESTIVE enzymes on their hyphae to obtain nutrients
54
Life Cycle of a multicellular Fungus
Most of human life cycle is diploid while most of plasmodium life cycle is haploid (only zygote is diploid)
-Plasmodium (parasite that causes malaria)
55
Step 1 in the life cycle of multicellular fungus
Plasmogamy: 2 fazes of fusion into a diploid
56
Step 2 in the life cycle of multicellular fungus
Heterokaryotic Stage: single cell for a long time have 2 nuclei since FUSED cells haven't combined nuclei yet
57
Step 3 in the life cycle of multicellular fungus
Karyogamy: fusion of 2 nuclei into one
58
Step 4 in the life cycle of multicellular fungus
Zygote is formed (2N) and it immediately undergoes meiosis And doesn't grow into multicellular yet rather into spores)
59
Step 5 in the life cycle of multicellular fungus
through meiosis the spores are produced and they are always haploid (split into 2), and unicellular at this point; they then terminate and grow to a MULTICELLULAR THING, which gametes cannot do United they terminate with another gamete
60
Step 6 in the life cycle of multicellular fungus
germination: with another spore and grow into a multicellular form (into a mycelium) through mitosis; this stage of germination to a mycelium is the only form of asexual reproduction
61
Step 7 in the life cycle of multicellular fungus
mycelium either produce spores (in a structure called sporangium) through mitosis OR they fuse with another mycelium to form a stored and the first stage is the plasmogamy....and the cycle repeats
62
Which part of the figure above represents asexual reproduction
Termination of mycelium into spore producing structures
63
What is a lichen
A lichen is an organism that results from a mutualistic relationship between a fungus and a photosynthetic organism (usually a cyanobacteria or green algae).
--How it works: the fungus grows AROUND the bacterial or algal cells and the fungus then BENEFITS from the constant supply of food (from photosynthesis, and the photosynthesizer, IN RETURN, benefits from H2O and nutrients absorbed by the fungus that are broken down.
64
what is the mutualistic relationship in lichen
-Lichens are pioneer organisms, and they break down rock and TRAP small materials (organic or inorganic) that other organisms can future colonize (the photosynthetic side also provides food for other organisms)
-There are also air spaces in the lichen because you need air for GAS EXCHANGE-->bring in CO2 and get rid of O2
65
How is it possible for lichens to colonize and grow (slowly) on bare rock?
There are not many resources and they are one of the 1st examples of life on land so they slow down growth as they slowly break down rock (through the fungal part's hyphae) and absorb what they need. They were able to grow because they had photosynthesis, yet they were able to make solid when breaking down rock to use the nutrients and then grow
66
What are some examples of parasitic Fungi
Foot fungus, yeast infections, ringworm, chytridomycosis, white nose( mycelium growing on bat's nose)
-Fungal spores will affect ants and insects (germinate in their body and affect their brain and the ants will explode so that the fungal SPORES can spread OUT and infect other places :)
-Examples in plants much more common: corn smut (which can be used for tacos), chestnut blight, potato blight (Irish potato famine in mid-1800s), powdery mildew, root rot.
67
What is the likely explanation for why there are many more fungal diseases of plants than of animals
Because plants and fungus have been evolving together longer than animals
68
Most evidence points Charophytes as the closest living protists group to plants. Why?
Both have unique proteins (circular rings) in cell wall that help synthesize cellulose
-Similar sperm structure
-Both genomic analysis and unique shared traits point to charophytes as protists group most closely related to plants
-
69
The diploid phase of the life cycle is shortest in which of the following?
angiosperm
moss
fungus
fern
gymnosperm
Fungus
Most fungi are haploid except for a very brief diploid stage that is seen only when a fungus reproduces sexually
70
Which process occurs in fungi and has the opposite effect on a cell's chromosome number than does meiosis?
Karyogamy
-Sexual reproduction in fungi occurs in three stages:
Plasmogamy
Karyogamy
Meiosis
71
Life Cycle of a Fern
Ferns are similar to moss and they have gametophyte that produces sperm in antheridia and eggs in archegonia and H2O is required for sperm to swim to egg
-Which single cell grows up into a new sporophyte generation (zygote)
72
What's the big deal about alternation of generations? How does it compare to our own life cycle?
There are separate multicellular haploid and diploid phases of a single organisms life cycle! and they look very different from one another.
-All plants undergo reproduction called Alternation of Generations where:
-2 forms of repro: 1) Diploid sporophyte produces haploid spores by meiosis--> each spore divides by Mitosis or cell division to form a multicellular gametophyte . 2) haploid gametophyte that was formed from spores will produce gametes (egg sperm) through mitosis as well, then will fuse to form a zygote, which through mitosis, forms a sporophyte
-Unlike plants, humans have only one form in their reproductive cycle--> cells in human body are diploid (except for gametes that are produced and located in the reproductive system)
-Males produce sperm in a regular basis while females were born with all the eggs that they will ever have
-Human gametes are produced from meiosis while plant gametophytes and gametes are produced from mitosis
-Multicellularity is achieved through mitosis by both
73
Vascular Tissue evolved prior to seeds. Early vascular plants were similar to today's ferns except had a larger gametophyte generation. What is vascular tissue in plants?
First appeared in seedless vascular plants (like ferns)
-Cells joined into LONG tubes "Veins" that transport H2O, nutrients, food and other materials throughout.
-Vascular cells (xylem) then transport H2O strengthened by lignin, which provides support against gravity.
-V tissue is necessary for true leaves, stems, and roots
-Must have vascularization in order to have roots, leaves, etc.
-In ferns, gametophyte and sporophyte exist independently (separately)
74
monophyletic vs paraphyletic
MONO: ALL descendants came from one common ancestor
PARA: Pertaining to a group of taxa that consists of a common ancestor and some, but not all, of its descendants.
75
Consider the characteristics of moss and fern life cycles.
In mosses, the gametophyte is the dominant stage of the life cycle; in ferns, the sporophyte is the dominant stage of the life cycle. In both mosses and ferns, moisture is required for sperm to reach the egg.
76
The diploid generation of the plant life cycle always __________.
produces spores
77
How do spores and gametes grow
Spores, which are haploid, grow by mitosis to become haploid gametophytes. The gametophyte produces eggs by mitosis; eggs are also haploid.
78
step 1 of the moss life cycle
Mature Sporophytes produce haploid spores, dispersed by wind
79
step 2 of the moss life cycle
Separate spores develop into female and male gametophytes
80
step 3 of the moss life cycle
Haploid eggs form in archegonia, and haploid sperm form in antheridia
81
step 4 of the moss life cycle
Haploid gametes undergo fertilization, forming a diploid zygote
82
step 5 of the moss life cycle
The diploid zygote develops into a sporophyte
83
What evolutionary development allowed plants to grow tall?
lignified vascular tissue
The polymer lignin strengthens the xylem and phloem, giving the plant more support and allowing it to grow taller.
84
In the area of "seeds", what are the benefits?
Ferns and seedless relatives still have big problems. Their embryos are not well protected and they need H2O for sperm to reach the egg. Seeds and pollen (first evolved in gymnosperms) help solve these problems.
85
Which Two Structures do SEED Plants have that help solve the problems of seedless plants
They have BOTH seeds and pollen (don't need H2O)
-The seeds protect the plant embryo to and stored in the seed is the embryo's food supply
-Pollen: is a gametophyte (to produce gamete) that is NOT a sperm. It produces Sperm though. It is protected by sporopollenin in the OUTER layer and can transmit the sperm to egg without water
86
Heterospory
the production of two distinct types of spores by different structures
87
pine tree life cycle (gymnosperms)
-3 generations in this life cycle: diploid embryo, haploid mom, diploid grandma (seed coat)
seed: embryo with food supply and protective coat
Pollen: male gametophyte of seed plants (mobile and can fertilize female w/o water)
--Pollen is primarily dispersed by WIND in gymnosperms
Microsporangia: in male cones, which produce spores that grow into the pollen (male gametophyte)
--Sporangia in cones which contain the spore will later fall off.
Megasporangia: produce spores that grow into the female gametophyte (which STAYS attached to the cone)
Pine seeds: include tree embryo surrounded by female gametophyte ("mom" = food for embryo), all ENCLOSED in a tough coat (integument sporophyte tissue) that came from the grandma sporophyte
-If pollen never reaches female gametophyte, then it will NEVER produce the sperm (pollinators ONLY for angiosperms, and only gymnosperm pollen has WINGS to help it stay a little longer so that it could potentially find its female before it dies)
--When pollen grain reaches a female cone, a sperm cell is CREATED by mitosis AS it goes down the tube; pollen grows a tube to transfer the sperm into an egg and FERTILIZATION occurs (fertilization results in a new cell that is haploid or diploid and is called a zygote (if diploid, and this zygote Grows into an embryo sporophyte (tree) that is protected in a seed where no water was needed).
88
angiosperm life cycle
- Gametophyte development
- Pollination
- Double fertilization
- Seed development
-Flowers: reproductive structures of angiosperms (analogous to cones in gymnosperms) where you find micro and megasporangia
-Fruits: the vessels around angiosperm seeds
Double Fertilization: the male gametophyte (pollen) produces 2 sperm cells: 1st one fertilizes the egg to create a zygote, while the other fuses with 2 other haploid nuclei that share same cell to create a triploid nuclei (which grows into the embryos food source or the ENDOSPERM)
89
In seedless plants, a fertilized egg will develop into
a sporophyte
90
What is a meristem?
perpetually dividing unspecialized tissues
91
What are the three major tissue types, and where would you find them in each plant organ?
ground tissue in the middle, vascular tissue (xylum and pleom), and dermal
92
apical meristems
enable growth in length
93
lateral meristems
growth in thickness
94
primary growth
growing taller
95
secondary growth
increases the diameter of the parts formed in previous years
96
What do we call plants that also have secondary growth?
woody plants
97
what are the three major plant organs
roots, stems, leaves
98
roots
anchorage, absorb materials and water, and store carbs
99
stems
produce leaves, branches & bear reproductive structures
100
roots
primary photosynthetic organs → intercept light, exchange gases; also dissipate
heat, bear defense mechanisms,
101
Identify which parts of the root are dermal, ground, and vascular tissue (color-coded above).
vascular (purple), Dermal (blue), ground (yellow)
102
where is the apical meristems
the point where all the tissues meet and cannot be divided into different group
103
what are cactus leaves adapted for
to adapt to its extremely dry environment
104
what are potato stems adapted for
the potato is classified as a stem rather than a root. The major function of a potato stem alteration is to retain starches for the plant.
105
What’s the plural of stoma?
stomata
106
what are onion roots adapted for
storage
107
parenchyma cells
Large central vacuoles
Metabolically active
Photosynthesis primarily occurs in these cells
108
collenchyma cells
Flexible support w/out
restraining growth
Elongate with stem and leaf growth
109
sclerenchyma cells
Rigid, provide support
Contain lignin
Mature cells are dead→ “skeleton”
Fibers (grouped strands)
110
xylem
conducts water and minerals upward from roots into shoots
111
Phloem
transports sugars from where they are made to where they are needed or stored.
112
cuticle
waxy covering on leaves and stems, protects from desiccation
113
stoma
pore that allows gas exchange between the interior of the plant and the environment. Stoma opening is surrounded by guard cells.
114
mesophyll cells
photosynthesis
115
which ring is the youngest in a woody plant
the outer most ring
116
transpiration
Transpiration is driven by a negative pressure potential...
Water moves from areas of higher water potential to areas of lower water potential.
Typically, more water in leaves than in air (as water vapor), which drives the movement of water molecules out of the leaf through the stomata and into the air.
117
adhesion
water molecules that stick to cell walls
118
why are there carnivorous plants
Poor soil nutrition has led carnivorous plants to obtain nitrogen and phosphorus elsewhere, so they have evolved to kill and digest insects in order to outsource their nutrients.
119
What causes guard cells to open
Guard cells open and close stomata by either swelling or relaxing in response to a variety of triggers. For example, a combination of strong sunlight and high intracellular carbon dioxide levels results in the increased uptake of sugar, potassium, and chloride ions by the guard cells.
120
Bio 122
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