test 2

Question 1

affirming the consequent

Answer 1

f p, then q. If the cat is on the mat, she is asleep.
q. She is asleep.
Therefore, p. Therefore, she is on the mat.

Question 2

DENYING THE ANTECEDENT

Answer 2

f p, then q. If the cat is on the mat, she is asleep.
Not p. She is not on the mat.
Therefore, not q. Therefore, she is not asleep.

Question 3

The first part in a conditional statement (the if part) is known as the

Answer 3

antecedant

Question 4

conditional statement

Answer 4

if then statement

Question 5

the second part (the then part) is known as the

Answer 5

consequent

Question 6

disjunctive syllogism

Answer 6

Either p or q. Either we light the fire or we will . freeze.
Not p. We will not light the fire.
Therefore, q. therefore, we will freeze.

Question 7

Hypothetical Syllogism

Answer 7

f p, then q. If Ajax steals the money, he will go to . jail.
If q, then r. If Ajax goes to jail, his family will . . suffer.
Therefore, if p, then r. Therefore, if Ajax steals the . money, his family will suffer.

Question 8

Implicit premise

Answer 8

a premise that is not
explicitly stated in an argument but is a
crucial part of the argument. Also
called suppressed premise and hidden
premise

Question 9

Modus Ponens (Affirming the Antecedent)

Answer 9

f p, then q.
p.
Therefore, q

Question 10

Modus Tollens (Denying the Consequent)

Answer 10

If p, then q.
Not q.
Therefore, not p.

Question 11

syllogism

Answer 11

a deductive argument made up of three
statements–two premises and one conclusion

Question 12

deductive argument

Answer 12

intended to
provide logically conclusive support for
its conclusion

Question 13

inductive argument

Answer 13

is intended to provide
probable support for its conclusion.

Question 14

valid argument

Answer 14

A deductive argument that succeeds in providing conclusive support for its conclusion.

Question 15

invalid argument

Answer 15

A deductive argument that doesnt succeed in providing conclusive support for its conclusion.

Question 16

sound argument

Answer 16

A deductively valid argument that
also has true premises.

Question 17

unsound argument

Answer 17

A deductively valid argument that has a false premise.

Question 18

A strong argument is

Answer 18

An inductive argument that succeeds in providing
probable support for its conclusion

Question 19

weak argument.

Answer 19

An inductive argument that fails to provide probable support

Question 20

cogent argument

Answer 20

An inductively strong argument with true premises

Question 21

uncogent argument

Answer 21

An inductively strong argument witha false premise

Question 22

truth preserving

Answer 22

The argument’s form is good; if the premises are true, the conclusion must be true.

Question 23

fallacious appeal to authority.

Answer 23

The fallacy of relying on the opinion of someone deemed to be an expert who in fact is not an expert.

Question 24

Background information

Answer 24

The large collection of very well supported beliefs that we all rely on to inform our actions and choices. It consists of basic facts about everyday things, beliefs based on very good evidence (including our own personal observations and excellent authority), and justified claims that we would regard as “common sense” or “common knowledge.

Question 25

expert

Answer 25

someone who is more knowledgeable in a particular subject area or field than most others. They are only considered an expert in this particular field.

Question 26

gambler’s fallacy

Answer 26

The error of thinking that previous events can affect the probabilities in the random event at hand.

Question 27

Confirmation bias:

Answer 27

we seek out and only use confirming evidence (evidence that supports what we already believe)

Question 28

Availability error:

Answer 28

we rely on evidence that is psychologically available, i.e., memorable, striking, persuasive, or impressive, or just more easily accessible, but not necessarily logically acceptable

Question 29

Identification

Answer 29

inviting the consumer to identify with a person, group, idea, image, experience, etc., and thus with the product.

Question 30

advertising

Answer 30

is the practice of calling the public’s attention to something in order to induce them to buy products or services or otherwise change their opinions or behavior.

Question 31

bias

Answer 31

Biased reporting is not necessarily fake news, but it can easily become fake news with the addition of intentional deception.

Question 32

fake news.

Answer 32

deliberately false or misleading news stories that masquerade as truthful reporting.

Question 33

euphemisms

Answer 33

Words used to convey positive or neutral attitudes or emotions in place of more negative ones

Question 34

Dysphemisms

Answer 34

Words used to convey negative attitudes or emotions in place of more neutral or positive ones.

Question 35

Homophily

Answer 35

the tendency to give more credence to a statement if it comes from our friends

Question 36

Native advertising

Answer 36

paid advertising designed to imitate the tone, style, and look of a publication’s editorial or journalistic content

Question 37

Objectivity in journalism

Answer 37

is ensuring that the story exhibits no explicit or implicit preference for one set of values over another

Question 38

Opinions, in the news business

Answer 38

are expressions of views that often cannot be verified entirely in this way—they are explanations, interpretations, judgments, speculations, and the like.

Question 39

Reasonable skepticism

Answer 39

An attitude that involves 1. giving up the habit of automatically accepting claims in the media, 2. rejecting the questionable assumption that most of what’s said online is true, 3. and refusing to believe a claim unless there are legitimate reasons for doing so.

Question 40

the 4 valid argument patterns in their symbolized versions

Answer 40

Modus Ponens (Affirming the Antecedent): Modus Tollens (Denying the Consequent): Hypothetical Syllogism (Chain Reasoning): Disjunctive Syllogism:

Question 41

the 2 invalid argument symbolized

Answer 41

Affirming the consequent Denying the Antecedent

Question 42

The things to keep in mind when evaluating expert opinion (Ch. 4)

Answer 42

assessing professional reputation among peers, and checking for financial or special-interest biases, as outlined in the critical thinking framework. Key factors include ensuring the expert's knowledge is relevant, looking for supporting evidence, and using triangulation with other sources to validate their claims.

Question 43

9. How to portion belief when claims conflict, experts disagree, etc. (Ch.4)

Answer 43

If a claim conflicts with expert opinion, we have good reason to doubt it. When the experts disagree about a claim, we have good reason to doubt it.

Question 44

10. Indicators of an expert’s reliability, both minimum and preferred requirements (Ch.4)

Answer 44

Minimal Prerequisites (Minimum Requirements) These are the basic standards necessary for someone to be considered an expert in a field: Education and Training: Reputable, relevant training (degrees, certificates). Experience in the Field: Active experience in making reliable judgments, as long experience suggests proficiency. More Telling Indicators (Preferred Requirements) These indicators provide stronger evidence of true expertise and reliability: Reputation among Peers: Recognition within their professional community, such as peer-reviewed publications, awards, or positions of authority. Professional Accomplishments: Demonstrated success and high-level achievements within their specific field. Absence of Bias: Objectivity is a key indicator, as experts who are financially or emotionally conflicted (e.g., paid by special interest groups) are less reliable. Consistency: The expert’s opinions are consistent over time and do not conflict with the consensus of other reputable experts in the same field.

Question 45

11. The pros and cons of personal experience and potential problems with perception (Ch.4)

Answer 45

Many claims are based on nothing more than personal experience, ours or someone else’s. We can trust our personal experience—to a point. The guiding principle is: It’s reasonable to accept the evidence provided by personal experience only if there’s no reason to doubt it. Some common factors that can raise such doubts are impairment (stress, injury, distraction, emotional upset, and the like), expectation, and our limited abilities in judging probabilities.

Question 46

13. The things to keep in mind when evaluating the news and advertisements (Ch. 5)

Answer 46

Authority & Credibility: Who created this? Is the author or organization trusted and reputable? Accuracy & Evidence: Is the information correct, supported by evidence, or verifiable by other sources? Look for in-text citations or links. Objectivity & Bias: Is the content balanced, or does it show a specific bias or hidden agenda? Purpose & Audience: Why was this created? Is the intent to inform, entertain, or sell a product? Currency (Timeliness): When was it published? Is the information outdated? Product Difference: What makes this product unique? Benefits: What are the actual benefits offered? Honesty: Is the advertisement misleading or overly emotional? Call to Action: Does it ask for a direct purchase or behavior change?

Question 47

Strategies to Distinguish Between What’s Real and What’s Fake

Answer 47

Read laterally 2. Read critically 3. Use Google and Wikipedia carefully 4. Check your own biases

Question 48

Denotation vs connotation

Answer 48

Denotation refers to the literal or primary meaning of words (sometimes called the dictionary meaning). 2. Connotation is the feelings and attitudes associated with words, associations beyond the literal meanings of a term

Question 49

17. The primary goal of advertisements (Ch. 5)

Answer 49

Although advertising can be both truthful and helpful, its primary function is not to provide objective and accurate information to consumers; its purpose is not to help consumers make fully informed, rational choices about available options.

Question 50

18. Old-school advertising tricks (Ch. 5)

Answer 50

Identification: inviting the consumer to identify with a person, group, idea, image, experience, etc., and thus with the product. 2. Slogans: memorable catchphrases. Ex: “Just do it.” “Obey your thirst.” “Calgon take me away.” “Open happiness.” “Break Free.” 3. Misleading Comparisons: Ex: “Better tasting. . .” “25% more. . .” 4. Weasel Words: may, some, up to, can, could, might, as many as, possibly, virtually, many, seems, perhaps, reportedly, etc

Question 51

19. Key points about internet advertising (Ch. 5)

Answer 51

Online advertising has become the most precise, calibrated, targeted, and insidious form of advertising in history, hitting us with thousands of targeted ads per week.