Test #4 Flashcards

Question

two main factors that affect helping

Answer 1

- we first need to recognize that the situation is really an emergency. We look around, notice that nobody is responding, and assume - perhaps mistakenly - that the situation isn’t an emergency. - pluralistic ignorance - A false impression of how other people are thinking feeling or responding. Error of assuming that no one in a group perceives things as we do (“I’m the only one who thinks this is an emergency”) (“i’m the only one who didn't understand that lecture”)

Answer 2

- The presence of others makes each person feel less responsible for the outcome. - The more people present at an emergency, the less each feels responsible for the consequences of not helping. - Diffusion of responsibility will not occur if a person believes only he/she is aware of the victim’s need

Answer 3

- What would you do if while in a room, smoke began to seep into the room through a vent? - Within 4 mins, 50% of students working alone acted - Within 6 minutes (max time allotted in the study) – 75% of these participants acted (reported smoke, got help). - They interpreted the smoke as a potential emergency - groups of 3: Only 4% of participants acted within 4 minutes, and only 12% did so before the end of the study - even though by then the smoke was so thick they had to fan it away from their faces to see the questionnaire - Instead, they coolly examined the reactions of the others in the room, saw nobody else seemed too concerned, and assumed nothing was wrong (pluralistic ignorance)

Answer 4

(the emergency is clear) - groups of people in similar studies are only slightly less likely to help than single bystanders. The presence of others inhibits helping if the emergency is ambiguous and the other bystanders are strangers who cannot easily read one another’s reactions.

Answer 5

- phenomenon where people become less productive in groups - the tendency for people to exert less effort when they pool their efforts toward a common goal than when individually accountable. - Blindfolded people in a tug-of-war device asked to “pull as hard as you can” pulled 18% harder when they thought they were pulling alone than when they believed that two to five people were also pulling - Social loafing may be a variant of bystander non-intervention. It appears to be due in part to diffusion of responsibility: People working in groups typically feel less responsible for the outcome of a project than they do when working alone. As a result, they don’t invest as much effort.

Answer 6

- unpleasant mental experience of tension resulting from two conflicting thoughts or beliefs - We feel tension (dissonance) when we are aware that we have two thoughts that are incompatible or when our behaviour is inconsistent with our attitudes. To reduce this unpleasant arousal, we adjust our thinking.

Answer 7

- subjects were asked to tell people that a very boring experiment they participated in was interesting - When people were paid less to say the experiment was interesting they believed they must have enjoyed the experiment a little bit because the external reward ($1) wasn’t a lot - vs when paid more ($20) they figured they were only saying the experiment was interesting because they were being paid so much and they did not enjoy it - Reduction of dissonance by internally justifying one’s behaviour when external justification is “insufficient”

Answer 8

- The tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request - Others were first approached with a small request: Would they display a 3-inch “Be a safe driver”window sign? Nearly all readily agreed. When approached two weeks later to allow the large, ugly sign in their front yards, 76% consented. - It appears that by agreeing to a small request, people come to view themselves as the kind of person who helps others. Once this self-image is in place, it makes people more likely to agree to the second, larger request that comes later. Also, refusing the larger request would be inconsistent with our previous behaviour. We like to appear consistent!

Answer 9

- persuasive technique in which the seller of a product starts by quoting a low sales price and then mentions all of the add on costs once the customer has agreed to purchase the product - People who agree to an initial offer (but where the offer has not yet been filled) will often still comply when the requester ups the ante by changing the offer. People who receive only the costly offer are less likely to comply with it (car dealership example!) - Why? - First, while the buyer’s decision to buy is reversible, a commitment of sorts does exist, due to signing a cheque for a down payment. This creates the illusion of irrevocability - Second, this commitment triggers the anticipation of an exciting event - driving out with a new car! To thwart the anticipated event by not going ahead with the deal would produce disappointment. - Third, while the final price is higher than the buyer thought it would be, it is likely only slightly higher than the price at another dealership. So the buyer might concede, “Oh, what the heck. I’m already here, I’ve already filled out the forms, I’ve already written out the cheque – why wait?”

Answer 10

- Some scholars contend that “much prejudice, particularly that of Caucasians toward African Americans, has merely “gone underground” and is merely subtler - 97% of Whites say they want their child attending an integrated school. However, 57% said they would be unhappy if their child married a Black person. - People are slower to detect prejudice when it occurs within a group (e.g., female against female). Chris Rock?

Answer 11

- We quite easily, and perhaps quite naturally, associate people from other races with scary things - In shock experiments, White people give no more shock to a Black than to a White person – except when they are angered or when the recipient can’t retaliate or know who did it - White people in one study reported more liking for black people when viewing slides of Whites and Blacks but when viewing Blacks their facial muscles showed more frowning than smiling - Studies show that when primed with a Black rather than White face (no Black participants in study) White people think guns: They more quickly recognize a gun and they more often mistake a tool, such as a wrench, for a gun - When fatigued or feeling threatened, people become even more likely to mistakenly shoot a minority person - The participants (both Blacks and Whites) more often mistakenly shot targets who were Black. Follow-up simulations revealed that it’s Black male suspects that are more likely to be associated with threat and to be shot - members of stigmatized groups (e.g., Black people, gay people, older people) tend to have slightly more positive implicit attitudes toward their groups than do people not in the group, BUT there is still a moderate preference for the more socially valued group

Answer 12

- We categorize: We find it useful to put people, ourselves included, into categories as a short-cut to understanding other things about others - We identify: we associate ourselves with certain groups (our in-group) and gain self-esteem - We compare: we contrast our groups with other groups (out-groups) with a favorable bias toward our own group - In-group bias – favoritism to one’s own group.

Answer 13

- belief that people get what they deserve and deserve what they get. - We are taught that good is rewarded – evil is punished - This motive is so strong that it can lead people to ignore injustice and instead see no justice at all - Those who assume a just world believe that rape victims must have behaved seductively, that battered spouses must have provoked their beatings and that sick people are responsible for their illnesses

Answer 14

- The perception of out-group members as more similar to one another than in-group members. Thus “they” are alike; “we” are different. (we think everyone in a group is the same, the more we get to know the group we realize this is not true) - And once we assign people to groups (psychology profs, drama majors, athletes) we are likely to exaggerate the similarities within groups and the differences between them - Research indicates that the more familiar people are with an outgroup, the less likely they are to perceive it as homogeneous

Answer 15

- The tendency for people to more accurately recognize faces of their own race - Both Black and White subjects more easily recognize a face of their own race - It’s not that we cannot perceive differences among faces of another race. When looking at a face from another racial group, we often pay attention first to race rather than to individual features

Answer 16

- accommodating groups of individuals who deviate from one’s stereotype by thinking of them as a special category of people that are different. - In stereotype-disconfirming situations people tend to explain away the behavior as an exception to the rule

Answer 17

- attributing outgroup members’ negative behaviours to their dispositions (and excusing such behaviour from our own group).

Answer 18

humans have a biologically based need for interpersonal connections

Answer 19

outbreak of irrational behaviour that is spread by social contagion

Answer 20

many people become simultaneously convinced of bizarre things that are false

Answer 21

false stories repeated so many times that people believe them to be true

Answer 22

enhancement of performance brought about by the presence of others

Answer 23

process of assigning causes to a behaviour

Answer 24

a worsening of performance in the presence of others

Answer 25

- uniformity of agreement (if everyone agrees on the wrong answer, you are more likely to conform. if one person agrees with you conformity plummets) - difference in the wrong answer (knowing someone else in the group differed from the majority, made the participants less likely to conform) - size (size of the majority makes a difference up to 6 people)

Answer 26

posting nasty anonymous online comments

Answer 27

emphasis on group unanimity at the expense of critical thinking

Answer 28

tendency of group discussion to strengthen the dominant positions held by individual group members

Answer 29

group of individuals who exhibit intense and unquestioning devotion to a single individual or cause

Answer 30

approach to convincing people to change their minds about something by first introducing reasons why the perspective might be correct and then debunking these reasons

Answer 31

behaviour intended to help others

Answer 32

learning about psychological research can change real world behaviour for the better

Answer 33

helping others for unselfish reasons

Answer 34

- interpersonal provocation - frustration - media influences - aggressive cues - arousal - alcohol/drugs - temperature

Answer 35

form of indirect aggression prevalent in girls, involving spreading rumours , gossiping, and using non verbal putdowns for the purpose of social manipulation

Answer 36

personality trait that assesses the extent to which peoples behaviour reflects their true feelings and attitudes

Answer 37

we are more likely to believe something we've heard many times

Answer 38

theory that we acquire our attitudes by observing our behaviours

Answer 39

theory that we don't really change our attitudes, but report that we have so that our behaviours appear consistent with our attitudes

Answer 40

- central route - evaluate the merits of an argument thoughtfully and carefully - peripheral route - respond to arguments on the basis of snap judgements

Answer 41

persuasive technique involving making a small request before a bigger one

Answer 42

persuasive technique involving making an unreasonably large request before making the small request we hope to have granted

Answer 43

persuasive technique in which we convince someone to perform a favour for us by telling them that they are free not to do it

Answer 44

assumption that behaviours among individual members of a group are due to their internal dispositions

Answer 45

evolutionary principle that creates a predisposition toward distrusting anything or anyone unfamiliar or different

Answer 46

claim that prejudice arises from a need to blame other groups for our misfortunes

Answer 47

claim that our attributions and behaviours are shaped by a deep seated assumption that the world is fair and all things happen for a reason

Answer 48

unfounded negative belief of which we're aware regarding the characteristics of an outgroup

Answer 49

unfounded negative belief of which we're unaware regarding the characteristics of an outgroup

Answer 50

educational approach designed to minimize prejudice by requiring all children to make independent contributions to a shared project

Answer 51

- A person’s characteristic way of thinking, feeling, and acting (has to be consistent over time or else it is an emotion or a mental state) - A person’s unique and stable pattern of characteristics and behaviours - Identical twins reared apart tend to be very similar in their personality traits. They’re also far more similar than fraternal twins reared apart. - It’s also evident that identical twins reared apart are about as similar as identical twins reared together! So environmental factors (shared environment - experiences that make individuals within the same family more alike) appears to play little role in adult personality

Answer 52

- experiences in childhood (like feelings of love and care from parents) influence your adult behaviour (like intimate relationships) - the contents of your dreams are meaningful and interpretable - talking about your problems can relieve those problems, even problems like paralysis and memory loss - freud was not the inventor of these ideas, they already existed he just made them more digestible and readily accessible to the average person - Freud: A neurologist. His patients' disorders made no neurological sense. For instance, a patient might have lost all feeling in a hand, yet no sensory nerves show damage. - Freud concluded that many mental disorders were not somatogenic (i.e., physiologically caused). Thus, the cornerstone of his psychoanalytic theory.

Answer 53

- Psychic Determinism - assume all psychological events have a cause. We aren’t free to choose our actions. There is a reason for everything. - Symbolic meaning - To Freudians, no action, no matter how trivial, is meaningless. Almost all have symbolic meaning and are attributable to preceding mental causes, even if we can’t always figure out what these causes are (something going on unconscious) - Unconscious motivation - We rarely understand why we do what we do. The mind is like an iceberg, with the unconscious being the vast portion hidden underwater. Example: The peculiar loss of feeling in one’s hand might be caused by fear of touching one’s genitals; unexplained blindness caused by not wanting to see something that aroused intense anxiety.

Answer 54

Freud told the patient to relax and say whatever came to mind, no matter how trivial. He believed this would allow them to retrieve and then release unconscious memories from childhood. This is called psychoanalysis.

Answer 55

- Freud viewed our mind like an iceberg, with conscious awareness like the part that floats above the surface. Below the surface is the larger unconscious, holding thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories, of which we are unaware. - Some thoughts are stored in our preconscious from which we can retrieve them from conscious awareness. - Freud believed that the human psyche consists of three parts: id, ego, and superego. The interplay among these components and their strength give rise to our personality and differences in our personality respectively - id (basic instincts) - resoviour of our most primitive impulses (sex and aggression). strives to survive, reproduce and aggress (impulsivity, get pleasure now). It uses the pleasure principle – seeks instant gratification - ego (mediator) - psyches executive and principal decision maker, recognizes the demands of the superego - superego (our conscience) - sense of morality, leads the ego to focus on how one ought to behave (responsibility, obligation) - Physiological distress results from conflict between the 3 components - In Freud’s view, human personality, including its emotions and strivings, arises from a conflict between our aggressive, pleasure-seeking impulses and the internalized social restraints against them

Answer 56

- Freud believed personality forms during life’s first few years. He concluded that children pass through a series of psychosexual stages. - He believed that conflicts unresolved during earlier psychosexual stages could surface as maladaptive behaviour in the adult years. - oral stage - anal stage - phallic stage - latency stage - genital stage - Conflict during the oral, anal, or phallic stages, could lock (fixate) the person in that stage. - A person who had been either orally overindulged or deprived might fixate at the oral stage, for example. This orally fixated adult could exhibit either passive dependence or an exaggerated denial of this dependence - perhaps by acting tough and uttering biting sarcasm. Or they might seek oral gratification by smoking and overeating.

Answer 57

- birth to 12-18 months - focuses on the mouth - sucking and drinking

Answer 58

- 18 months - 3 years - focuses on toilet training - alleviating tension by expelling feces

Answer 59

- 3-6 years - focuses on genitals - Oedipus complex - conflict during phallic stage in which boys supposedly love their mothers romantically and want to eliminate their fathers as rivals

Answer 60

- 6-12 years - dormant sexual pleasure - sexual impulses are submerged in the unconscious "boys are yucky"

Answer 61

- 12+ | - renewed sexual impulses, emergence of mature romantic relationships

Answer 62

- Freud proposed that the ego protects itself from anxiety with defenses - tactics that reduce or redirect anxiety by distorting reality (defense mechanisms). Freud: Excessive reliance on these reveals pathology. - repression - regression - reaction formation - projection - rationalization - displacement - sublimation - There is little scientific support for many Freudian defence mechanisms as explained by psychoanalytic theory. - Modern researchers suggests that these mechanisms do not relieve unconscious conflict over libidinal desires. Instead, defense mechanisms protect self-esteem

Answer 63

- rids anxious thoughts and feelings from consciousness. Freudians assert that infantile amnesia is caused by repression. However, research has found infantile amnesia in mice and rats - a person who has witnessed a traumatic combat scene finds himself unable to remember it

Answer 64

- retreat to an earlier, more infantile stage of development. A child may regress to the oral comfort of thumb-sucking when under stress. - college student sucks thumb during a difficult exam

Answer 65

- turning an anxiety-provoking feeling into its opposite. Feelings of inadequacy become bravado (overconfident). Overcompensating. Harley riders have small penises? - a married woman who's sexually attracted to a coworker experiences hatred and revulsion toward him

Answer 66

- unconscious attribution of our negative traits to others. “He doesn’t trust me” may really mean “I don’t trust him”. - a married man with powerful unconscious sexual impulses toward females complains that other women are always "after him"

Answer 67

- unconsciously generating reasonable-sounding explanations for our failures. Bill says he didn’t get the job because he “doesn’t have connections”. - a political candidate who loses an election convinces herself that she didn't really want that position after all

Answer 68

- diverts an impulse from a socially unacceptable target onto a safer, more acceptable target. Angry at his parents, a child kicks his dog (punch the wall) - golfer angrily throws his club into the woods after missing an easy putt

Answer 69

- turns a socially unacceptable impulse into an admired goal. Working out at the gym 7 days a week because you aren’t having sex. - a boy who enjoys beating up on other children grows up to become a successful professional boxer

Answer 70

1) unfalsifiability 2) failed predictions 3) lack of evidence for defence mechanisms 4) questionable conception of the unconscious 5) unrepresentative samples 6) flawed assumption of shared environment influence (behaviour-genetic studies have shown that shared environment plays little or no role in adult personality)

Answer 71

- Freud and others believed that dreams only occurred for a few seconds. - Freud claimed that “wish fulfillment is the meaning of every dream”. If so, we’d expect dream content to be mostly positive. However, positive dreams are less frequent than negative ones. And nightmares clearly aren’t wish fulfillments and they aren’t at all uncommon in either adults or children. - Freud believed that most dreams are sexual in nature. But sexual themes account for about only 10% of dreams we recall - Freud claimed that dreams are disguised wishes. Yet up to 90% of dream reports are straightforward descriptions of everyday activities and problems, like talking to friends - Painful memories, such as memories of the Holocaust are not repressed, but well remembered, if anything, remembered too well - Freud suggested that personality develops fully by age 6. If this was true you would expect to see much more trait stability in children.

Answer 72

- Freud suggested that early loss can render us vulnerable to depression later in life. Evidence suggests this is true - Freud noted that some memories are reconstructive

Answer 73

- Projective tests - test consisting of ambiguous stimuli that examinees must interpret or make sense of (inkblots) - This clinician presumes that the hopes, fears, and interests expressed in this boy’s descriptions of a series of ambiguous pictures in the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) are projections of his inner feelings. - Consists of 31 cards depicting ambiguous interpersonal situations - Shown a daydreaming boy, those who imagine he is pondering achievement goals are presumed to be projecting their own goals. - Projective tests aim to provide a “personality x- ray” by presenting an ambiguous stimulus and then asking test-takers to describe it or tell a story about it. - TAT interpretations do not generate scores with adequate reliability or validity. And TAT scores often fail to distinguish mental disorders (e.g., depression vs. nonpatients) or to correlate in predicted directions with personality traits

Answer 74

- Loren & Chapman showed college students a series of concocted human figure drawings containing certain physical features (such as large eyes and large genitals) along with a random description of the personality traits of the person who supposedly produced each drawing (such as paranoid and overly concerned about sexuality). - They then asked subjects to estimate the extent to which these physical features and personality traits co-occurred in the drawings - Students who believed that suspicious people draw suspicious eyes on the test perceived just that, even when shown cases where suspicious people drew peculiar eyes LESS often than non-suspicious people. This is called..An Illusory correlation - Of note, these were the same drawing features that experienced clinicians tend to believe are associated with these traits - and which research has shown to be invalid - The Barnum Effect

Answer 75

the tendency of people to accept descriptions that apply to almost everyone as applying specifically to them (horoscope). It demonstrates that personal validation (subjective judgments of accuracy) - is a flawed method of evaluating a test’s validity. We may be convinced that the results of a personality test fit us to a “T”, but that doesn’t mean the test is valid.

Answer 76

- Why do clinicians show confidence in uninformative tests? - They may believe that a relationship exists between two things, and are likely to notice confirming instances. This is...Confirmation Bias! Look and you will find! - Clinicians can be fooled, because things that seem similar on the surface don’t always go together in real life. This is called ....The Representativeness heuristic! - They may only easily recall cases in which drawing signs correspond to personality traits! This is called..The Availability Heuristic! - Although some claim that the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is helpful for predicting job performance and satisfaction, research on its reliability and validity is unfavourable. Most respondents don’t obtain the same MBTI personality type on retesting only a few months later, and MBTI scores don’t relate in especially consistent ways to either the Big Five or measures of job preferences - Personal experience, while useful in generating hypotheses, can mislead when it comes to testing them. Only scientific methods, that are safeguards against human error, allow us to determine whether we should trust our personal experience or disregard it in favour of evidence to the contrary.

Answer 77

- Investigative strategy used by law enforcement agencies to identify likely suspects and has been used by investigators to link cases that may have been committed by the same perpetrator. - derives from the Barnum Effect - Granted, if we’re probing a homicide, we’ll do better than chance by guessing that the murderer was a male between the age of 15 and 25, with psychological problems (most murders are committed by men, between these ages, who have suffers from such problems). - But criminal profilers purport to go beyond such statistics. They typically claim to be able to harness years of experience to outperform statistical formulas. Yet, there’s no convincing evidence that they do better than statistical formulas that take into account the psychological traits of known murderers. - Research finds that police officers can’t distinguish genuine criminal profiles from bogus criminal profiles consisting of vague and general personality traits (e.g., “he has deep-seated issues with hostility”). This suggests that profilers may base their conclusions about criminals on little more than Barnum statements - Criminal profiling may be more of an urban legend than a scientifically demonstrated ability. Yet tradition dies hard, and the FBI, RCMP, and other organizations remain in the full-time business of training criminal profilers.

Answer 78

- The psychological interpretation of handwriting. Over 3000 firms in the US have used graphology and some use it to detect dishonest behavior in potential employees - Graphologists use handwriting signs that rely heavily on the representative heuristic (some handwriting features bear a superficial similarity to certain traits, so it’s assumed they go together. Some graphologists claim that those who cross their t’s with little whips are sadistic) - Graphological interpretations have low reliability. Goldenburg gave professional graphologists a person's writing but said that it was made by different people over time. The interpretations changed whenever they believed it was made by a different person. - Well controlled studies show no correlation between handwriting and personality traits or job performance. And graphologists typically make vague and hard to verify predictions (eg. honest, insightful) yet refuse to predict the gender of writers (untrained people guess right 70% of the time). - Positive graphological studies have used autobiographies of participants, which could have yielded cues to their personalities rather than their handwriting. When participants wrote identical passages, the validities of graphological interpretations plummeted to about zero.

Answer 79

- Trait researchers attempt to define personality based on stable and enduring behavior patterns. - Factor analysis – statistical technique that analyzes the correlations among responses on personality inventories and other measures - If people who describe themselves as outgoing also say they like excitement and dislike quiet reading, such a statistically correlated cluster of behaviours reflects a basic factor, or trait – extraversion - sociability, popularity, liveliness = extraversion - risk taking, sensation seeking, and impulsivity = fearlessness

Answer 80

- Personality inventories: questionnaires designed to assess several traits. NEO Personality Inventory!! - Design to assess normal personalities (not disordered personality) - Big Five - five traits that have surfaced repeatedly in factor analyses of personality measures (extraversion, neuroticism, agreeableness, conscientiousness, openness to experience) OCEAN or CANOE - Extraversion: sociability and liveliness - Neuroticism: emotional instability (tense and moody) - Conscientiousness: dependability (careful and responsible) - Agreeableness: friendliness (easy to get along with) - Openness to experience: open-mindedness (intellectual curiosity) - In adulthood, the Big Five traits are quite stable - The Big Five dimensions describe personality in various cultures reasonably well - High openness to experience and agreeableness, and low neuroticism, are associated with successful job performance and good grades. Extroversion may be positively related to sales performance. - Mentally stable people tend to get median scores for all, mentally ill people tend to get extreme scores (very high or very low)

Answer 81

hypothesis that in the process of interpreting ambiguous stimuli, examinees project aspects of their personality onto the stimulus

Answer 82

relatively enduring predisposition that influences our behaviour across many situations

Answer 83

approach to personality that focuses on identifying general laws that govern the behaviour of all individuals

Answer 84

approach to personality that focuses on identifying the unique configuration of characteristics and life history experiences within an individual (specific to one person - less generalizable)

Answer 85

the extent to which people enjoy being with others

Answer 86

investigation that allows researchers to pinpoint genes associated with specific characteristics, including personality traits

Answer 87

tendency of the ego to postpone gratification until it can find an appropriate outlet

Answer 88

allows us to avoid anxiety by thinking about abstract and impersonal ideas

Answer 89

- theories derived from freud's model but with less emphasis on sexuality as a driving force in personality and more optimism regarding the prospect for long term personality growth - still believe in: - unconscious influence - importance of early experiences in shaping personality

Answer 90

according to Alfred addled, each persons distinctive way of achieving superiority

Answer 91

feelings of low self esteem that can lead to overcompensation for such feelings (attempt to demonstrate their superiority to others)

Answer 92

according to carl Jung, our shared storehouse of memories that ancestors have passed down to us across generations (cultural similarities)

Answer 93

cross culturally universal symbol

Answer 94

theorists who emphasize thinking as a central cause of personality

Answer 95

personality is controlled by 2 things - genetic factors - contingencies in environment (reinforcers/punishers)

Answer 96

tendency for people to mutually influence each others behaviour

Answer 97

extent to which people believe that reinforcers and punishers lie inside or outside their control (internals - things happen due to their own effort) (externals - things happen cause of chance)

Answer 98

drive to develop our innate potential to the fullest possible extent

Answer 99

- organism - our innate blueprint (genetically influenced) - self - self concept, beliefs about who we are - conditions of worth - expectations we place on ourselves for appropriate and inappropriate behaviour

Answer 100

inconsistency between our personalities and innate dispositions (we are not our genuine self)

Answer 101

transcendent moment of intense excitement and tranquility marked by a profound sense of connection to the world

Answer 102

assumption that the most crucial features of personality are embedded in our language

Answer 103

intuitive ideas concerning personality traits and their associations with behaviour

Answer 104

underlying personality traits (characteristic adaptations - their behavioural manifestations)

Answer 105

tendency to seek out new and exciting stimuli

Answer 106

detect peoples personality traits from their facial characteristics

Answer 107

paper and pencil measure consisting of questions that respondents answer in one of a few fixed ways

Answer 108

widely used structured personality test designed to asses symptoms of mental disorders

Answer 109

approach to building tests in which researchers begin with 2 or more criterion groups and examine which item best differentiates them

Answer 110

extent to which respondents can tell what items are measuring

Answer 111

making ourselves psychologically disturbed when were not

Answer 112

approach to building tests that require test developers to begin with a clear cut conceptualization of a trait and then write items to assess that conceptualization

Answer 113

extent to which a test contributes information beyond other more easily collected measures

Answer 114

consist of persistent, deviant, distressful and dysfunctional behavior patterns. factors associated with psychological disorders - statistical rarity - subjective distress - impairment - societal disapproval - biological dysfunction

Answer 115

are they uncommon in society? Yet not all mental conditions are rare, some are quite common (e.g., depression). And extreme creativity or athletic ability is rare but not an illness.

Answer 116

most disorders produce emotional pain for those afflicted by them. Yet some disorders do not generate stress (e.g., manic phase of bipolar disorder or conduct disorder in adolescence).

Answer 117

most disorders interfere with people’s ability to function in everyday life. Yet some conditions, like laziness, or stress around exam time can produce impairment but these aren’t mental disorders.

Answer 118

societal attitudes shape our views of abnormality (e.g., homosexuality before 1973). Yet messiness, rudeness, or racism are deemed undesirable by society, but they are not mental disorders

Answer 119

many mental disorders arise from a breakdown of physiological systems (e.g., schizophrenia). Yet some arise through learning and experience (e.g., phobias) combined with genetics.

Answer 120

- view of mental illness during middle ages in which odd behaviour, hearing voices, or talking to oneself was attributed to evil spirits infesting the body - In 1486, two German priests released a detailed manual, the Malleus Maleficarum (“The Witches Hammer”), to assist in identifying witches – thought to be possessed by the devil. - One could identify a witch by the “devil’s mark,” a spot on the skin that’s insensitive to pain - The Malleus Maleficarum played a key role in the witch hunts of the 16th & 17th centuries, which resulted in the execution of tens of thousands of innocent individuals. - Exorcisms are still performed in Italy, Mexico, and other countries

Answer 121

- mental illness due to a physical disorder requiring medical treatment. - Psychologically troubled people housed in asylums – institutions for the mentally ill. - Many were overcrowded and understaffed warehouses for mentally disturbed individuals. - Medical treatments were barely more scientific than those of the demonic era and several were barbaric. - Bloodletting was based on the mistaken notion that excessive blood causes mental illness - Physicians drained about 40% of a person’s blood. - Others tried to frighten patients “out of their diseases” by tossing them into a pit of snakes, hence the term “snake pit” as a term for an insane asylum - Phillippe Pinel in France and Dorothea Dix in the U.S. advocated moral treatment - that the mentally ill be treated with dignity, kindness, and respect.

Answer 122

- Medication: in the early 1950s a dramatic change in the treatment of mental illness arrived on the scene. - Imported from France, chlorpromazine (Thorazine) offered an effective treatment for symptoms of schizophrenia and psychotic disorders. - These individuals could now function more independently - By the 1960s and 1970s, the advent of chlorpromazine and similar medications became the primary impetus for government initiated deinstitutionalization – government policy of the 1960’s & 70’s that focused on releasing hospitalized psychiatric patients into the community and closing mental hospitals

Answer 123

1) Psychiatric diagnosis is nothing more than pigeonholing 2) Psychiatric diagnoses are unreliable. 3) Psychiatric diagnoses are invalid 4) Psychiatric diagnoses stigmatize people

Answer 124

- Childhood condition marked by excessive, impulsivity, and activity - Teachers complain that such children won’t remain in their seats, follow directions, or pay attention and that they display temper tantrums with little provocation. - the Childs symptoms can't be accounted for by other diagnoses, such as substance abuse and anxiety disorder - the child is likely to perform poorly on laboratory measures of concentration - the child has a higher probability than the average child of having biological relatives with ADHD - child is likely to show continued difficulties with inattention in adulthood, but improvements in impulsivity and overactivity in adulthood - the child has a good chance of responding positively to stimulant medications, like Ritalin

Answer 125

- Hospital clinicians “searched” for evidence that “confirmed” and “explained” the diagnosis. - Pseudo-patient explained: that he “had a close relationship with his mother but was rather remote from his father during his early childhood. During adolescence and beyond, however, his father became a close friend, while his relationship with his mother cooled. His present relationship with his wife was characteristically close and warm. Apart from occasional angry exchanges, friction was minimal. The children had rarely been spanked”. - Interviewer’s explanation: “This white 39-year old male ... manifests a long history of considerable ambivalence in close relationships, which begins in early childhood. A warm relationship with his mother cools during his adolescence. A distant relationship to his father is described as becoming very intense. Affective stability is absent. His attempts to control emotionality with his wife and children are punctuated by angry outbursts and, in the case of the children, spankings. And while he says that he has several good friends, one senses considerable ambivalence embedded in those relationships also.”

Answer 126

- The official system for classifying individuals with mental disorders is the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5). - The DSM-5 provides psychologists and psychiatrists with a set of decision rules for deciding how diagnostic criteria need to be met (exhibit 5/9 symptoms) - The DSM-5 is a valuable source of information concerning data such as prevalence. With major depression, the lifetime prevalence is 10% among women (odds are 1 in 10 a woman will experience an episode of major depression at some point in her life) and at least 5% in men. - DSM-5 adopts a biopsychosocial approach, which acknowledges the interplay of biological (like hormonal abnormalities), psychological (like irrational thoughts), and social (interpersonal interactions) influences

Answer 127

- There are over 300 diagnoses in DSM-5. Not all meet criteria for validity. The DSM-5 diagnosis of “Mathematics Disorder” describes little more than difficulties with performing arithmetic or math reasoning problems. It seems more of a label for learning problems than a diagnosis that tells us something new about the person. - While many rules for DSM-5 disorders are based on scientific findings, others are based largely on subjective committee decisions - comorbidity between diagnoses - people with one diagnosis frequently have one or more diagnoses. E.g., those diagnosed with major depression often meet criteria for one or more anxiety disorders - categorical model - model in which a mental disorder differs from normal functioning in kind rather than degree. Using this model, a mental disorder such as depression is either present or absent, with no in-between. Scientific evidence suggests some disorders better fit a dimensional model, meaning they differ from normal functioning in degree

Answer 128

- Snyder and Swan found that people often test for a trait by looking for information that confirms it. When assessing for introversion, people often solicit instances of introversion (“what factors make it hard for you to really open up to people?”) - When given a structured list of questions to choose from, even experienced psychotherapists prefer the introverted questions when testing for introversion and thus unwittingly trigger introverted behavior among their interviewees - Even when making up their questions, interviewers’ expectations may influence their questioning if they have definite preexisting ideas - Freudian therapists who fish for traumas in childhood experiences often find their hunches confirmed - Of child sex abuse are likely to experience feelings of shame depression, unworthiness, perfectionism, and powerlessness - When patients show such symptoms (which may result from many causes) therapists may search for evidence that confirms their belief of sex abuse . “people who have been abused often have your symptoms, so you were probably abused too.”

Answer 129

- Most clinicians express more confidence in their intuitive assessments than in statistical data - Yet when researchers pit statistical prediction (eg. predicting graduate school success using grades and aptitude scores) against intuitive prediction, the statistics consistently win. - Statistical predictions aren’t always reliable, but human intuition (expert intuition) is less reliable - Adding clinical intuition lowers predictive ability

Answer 130

- Be mindful that clients’ verbal agreement with what you say does not prove its validity - Beware of the tendency to see relationships that you expect to see (which concept is this?) or that are supported by striking examples readily available in your memory (which concept?). - Rely on your notes more than on your memory - Recognize that hindsight is seductive: It can lead you to feel overconfident and sometimes to judge yourself too harshly for not having foreseen outcomes. - Guard against the tendency to ask questions that assume your preconceptions are correct – consider opposing ideas and test them, too

Answer 131

- Continual feelings of worry, anxiety, physical tension, and irritability across many areas of life functioning. - A third of those with GAD develop it after a stressful event - like a wedding, illness, physical abuse, or death of a relative - or lifestyle changes, like completing school and starting a career - People with GAD are more likely to be female than male (like most anxiety disorders), middle aged, widowed or divorced, poor, and prone to “self- medication” with drugs for symptom relief

Answer 132

- Anxiety is a general state of apprehension or foreboding - Anxiety is adaptive when it prompts us to seek medical aid, to study for an upcoming test or avoid a dangerous situation. - Anxiety becomes maladaptive when the level of anxiety is out of proportion to the level of threat or when it occurs out of the blue, not in response to environmental changes - Twin studies show that many anxiety-related disorders, including panic disorder, specific phobias, PTSD, and OCD are genetically influenced - In particular, genes influence people’s levels of neuroticism—a tendency to be high-strung, guilt-prone, and irritable—which can set the stage for excessive worry - Illness anxiety disorder (hypochondriac) - condition marked by intense preoccupation with the possibility of a serious undiagnosed illness. - GAD, panic disorder

Answer 133

- The occurrence of repeated, unexpected panic attacks along with consistent concerns about future attacks - Panic attacks - intense anxiety reactions accompanied by physical symptoms such as a racing heart, rapid respiration, shortness of breath, heavy perspiration, dizziness, weakness, & feelings of terror/doom and urge to escape - Often leads to agoraphobia (people are scared of situations, where it’s difficult to escape → if they have a panic attack they have no place to escape/hide) - Smokers have 2x-4x risk of a first-time panic attack

Answer 134

- Focused anxiety on a specific object, activity, or situation. A phobia is an irrational fear that disrupts behaviour - For a fear to be diagnosed as a phobia, it must restrict our lives, create much distress, or both - Agoraphobia - A fear or avoidance of situations in which escape might be difficult or help unavailable when panic strikes. Given such fear, people may avoid being outside the home, in a crowd, on a bus, or on an elevator.

Answer 135

- An intense fear of being scrutinized by others. Social phobia is shyness taken to the extreme. - Individuals experience a marked fear of public appearances where embarrassment or humiliation seems likely, like speaking or performing in public or, more rarely, swimming, swallowing, or signing cheques in public. Their anxiety goes well beyond the stage fright that most of us feel occasionally

Answer 136

- condition marked by repeated and lengthy (at least one hour per day) immersion in obsessions, compulsions, or both, to prevent some dreaded event or to “make things right” - OCD involves unwanted repetitive thoughts (obsessions) and/or actions (compulsions). - Obsession - persistent idea, thought, or urge that is unwanted, causing marked distress. - Compulsion - repetitive behavior or mental act performed to reduce or prevent stress. - People diagnosed with OCD spend at least an hour per day immersed in obsessions, compulsions, or both - Ursu et al. used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to compare the brains of those with and without OCD as they engaged in a challenging cognitive task. The fMRI scans showed elevated activity in the anterior cingulate cortex of those with OCD. - The OCD response in the brain also shows malfunction of the caudate nucleus (part of the basal ganglia) which initiates body control and movement

Answer 137

- major depressive disorder | - bipolar disorder

Answer 138

- A mood disorder in which a person experiences, in the absence of drugs or a medical condition, two or more weeks of significantly depressed moods, feelings of worthlessness, and diminished interest or pleasure in most activities - Person feels overwhelming sadness, despair, hopelessness, and they usually lose their ability to experience pleasure

Answer 139

state in which a person experiences a lingering depressed mood or diminished interest in pleasurable activities, along with symptoms that include weight loss and sleep difficulties.

Answer 140

depression results from a low rate of response-contingent positive reinforcement. When people with depression try different things and receive no payoff, they eventually give up and stop participating in activities. Over time, their personal and social worlds shrink

Answer 141

theory that depression is caused by negative beliefs and expectations. Based on the cognitive triad, three components of depressed thinking: negative views of oneself, the world, and the future.

Answer 142

- A mood disorder in which the person alternates between the hopelessness and lethargy of depression and the overexcited state of mania - Manic episode - experience marked by dramatically elevated mood, decreased need for sleep, increased energy, inflated self- esteem, increased talkativeness, and irresponsible behavior. - High amygdala activity (emotion), low activity in gray matter associated with planning (prefrontal cortex)

Answer 143

- depressed people are more likely to think negatively and pessimistically - Depression prone people respond to bad events in self-focused, self-blaming ways - internal, stable, global --> I'm incapable of doing anything right ever - Studies confirm that a pessimistic explanatory style promotes depression when bad things happen - people can change their thinking styles - Layden had depressed students keep diaries of daily successes and failures, and were asked to explain how they contributed to their successes and how external factors might explain their failures. When tested 1 month later, the attribution training improved their self-esteem and attributional style vs. untreated control

Answer 144

the tendency of mildly depressed people to make accurate rather than self-serving judgments, attributions, and predictions.

Answer 145

the tendency to feel helpless in the face of events we can't control

Answer 146

- severe disorder of thought and emotion associated with a loss of contact with reality - Delusions - strongly held fixed belief that has no basis in reality - genetically influenced - Psychotic symptom - psychological problem reflecting serious distortions in reality (delusions) - Inappropriate affect - inappropriate behavioral responses for the situation (eg. laugh at something sad) - Hallucination - sensory perception that occurs in the absence of an external stimulus - People with schizophrenia typically have enlarged brain ventricles (ventricles expand when other areas of the brain shrink) - Drugs that treat schizophrenia block dopamine receptors in the brain

Answer 147

Disturbances in the Content of Thought - Delusions of persecution (e.g., GM is out to get me). - Delusions of being controlled (e.g., by the Devil). - Delusions of grandeur (e.g., I can save the world). Disturbances in the Form of Thought - Thought Disorder (incoherent, illogical, loose associations). - Neologisms (making up new words like “bamping”) - Clanging (rhyming sentences). Other Delusions - Thought Broadcasting (i.e., others can hear their thoughts). - Thought Insertion (i.e., someone planted ideas in my head). - Thought Withdrawal (i.e., someone removed my thoughts).

Answer 148

- disorders marked by inflexible and enduring behaviour patterns (personality traits) that impair social functioning and lead to distress (light clinical disorders) - paranoid personality disorder - antisocial personality disorder - histrionic personality disorder - narcissistic personality disorder - borderline personality disorder - psychopathic personality disorder

Answer 149

Highly suspicious, untrusting, guarded, easily slighted

Answer 150

Shows callous disregard for rights and feelings of others; impulsive, selfish, aggressive, reckless; willing to break law, lie, cheat, or exploit others for personal gain. History of irresponsible or illegal actions (psychopathic)

Answer 151

Seeks attention, overly dramatic, self-centered, shallow.

Answer 152

Has exaggerated sense of self-importance and entitlement; self-centered, arrogant, demanding, craves admiration and attention; lacks empathy.

Answer 153

Unstable in mood, behaviour, self-image, and social relationships; has intense fear of abandonment; impulsive & reckless, inappropriate anger; makes suicidal gestures and performs self-mutilating acts

Answer 154

condition marked by superficial charm, dishonesty, manipulativeness, self-centeredness, and risk taking.

Answer 155

- Dissociative disorder - condition involving disruptions in consciousness, memory, identity, or perception - dissociative identity disorder (DID) - condition characterized by the presence of two or more distinct personality states that recurrently take control of the person’s behavior. - At least two distinct personality states (alters) exist within the person that disrupt the person’s usual sense of identity and may be observed by others or reported by the individual - Researchers have identified intriguing differences among alters in their respiration rates, brain wave activity, eyeglass prescriptions, skin conductance responses, and handwriting. Yet all of these are consciously changeable. - Differences could stem from changes in mood or thoughts over time or from voluntary bodily changes - Memory tests show information shown to one alter is available to the other - Many or most DID patients show few or no clear-cut symptoms, such as alters, prior to psychotherapy. Spanos suggests D.I.D. is a form of role-playing and fantasizing in which people first view themselves as having multiple selves – then act that way - Most people with DID seek treatment for other problems and then get diagnosed with DID instead

Answer 156

condition marked by multiple episodes of depersonalization, derealization, or both.

Answer 157

inability to recall important personal information—most often related to a stressful experience—that can’t be explained by ordinary forgetfulness.

Answer 158

a subtype of dissociative amnesia, people not only forget significant events in their lives, but also flee their stressful circumstances

Answer 159

typically males that believe their penis and testicles are disappearing and receding into their abdomen (common in Asia)

Answer 160

episodes of intense sadness and brooding followed by uncontrolled behaviour and unprovoked attacks on people or animals

Answer 161

1) distinguishes that diagnosis from other similar diagnoses 2) predicts performance on lab tests 3) predicts family history of psychiatric disorders 4) predicts natural history of individual 5) predicts response to treatment

Answer 162

scholars who argue that psychiatric diagnoses exert powerful negative effects on peoples perceptions and behaviours Labeling theorists argue that once a mental health professional diagnoses us, others perceive us differently. Suddenly, we’re “weird,” “strange,” even “crazy.” This diagnosis leads others to treat us differently, in turn often leading us to behave in weird, strange, or crazy ways

Answer 163

a recently launched program of research designed to classify mental disorders in terms of deficits in brain circuitry

Answer 164

as medical students become familiar with symptoms of disease, they hyper-focus on their bodily processes looking for symptoms of disease

Answer 165

procedure of placing some people with mental illness in a psychiatric hospital or another facility based on their potential danger to themselves or others or their inability to care for themselves

Answer 166

legal defence proposing that people shouldn't be held legally responsible for their actions if they weren't of "sound mind" when committing them

Answer 167

condition marked by excessive anxiety about physical symptoms with a medical or purely psychological origin

Answer 168

marked emotional disturbance after experiencing or witnessing a severely stressful event

Answer 169

people become preoccupied with imagined or slight defects in their appearance (such as thin lips). may undergo repeated cosmetic surgeries to correct their "imperfections"

Answer 170

a condition marked by repeated automatic behaviours (twitching, facial grimacing, grunting)

Answer 171

core feature of anxious thinking - people predict terrible events despite their low probability

Answer 172

fear of anxiety related sensations (heart racing, nausea)

Answer 173

people come to a negative conclusion based on only an isolated aspect of the situation

Answer 174

lying, cheating, stealing in childhood

Answer 175

motor problem, including holding the body in bizarre or rigid postures, curling up in fetal position, and resisting simple suggestions to move

Answer 176

perspective proposing that mental disorders are a joint product of a genetic vulnerability, called a diathesis, and stressors that trigger this vulnerability

Answer 177

includes autistic disorder and Aspergers

Answer 178

- a psychological intervention designed to help people resolve emotional, behavioural and interpersonal problems and improve the quality of their lives - Psychotherapist is like a good coach - they help you reach your goals through “training and exercises”

Answer 179

- Women are more likely than men (though all benefit). | - Caucasian are more likely than Asians or Aboriginals to seek treatment (though all benefit in therapy).

Answer 180

- Clinical psychologists, psychiatrists, mental health counselors, clinical social workers, nurses - Good therapists are: warm, direct, empathetic, respectful, caring, engaged, enjoy their work, have a positive working relationship with their clients, tend not to contradict clients

Answer 181

Patients with temporary problems, who have some anxiety often do better (anxiety can motivate change), as do those who are better adjusted to begin with and accept how they might be contributing to their problems. Also those willing to work on their problems

Answer 182

Is the process of collecting and processing information from a client as a basis for determining the person’s problems as well as the goals and strategies used in treatment. Ideally, this involves a variety of measures that will lead to a balanced assessment of the individual.

Answer 183

- treatments inspired by classical psychoanalysis and influenced by Freuds techniques 1) Much of human behaviour is motivated by unconscious conflicts, wishes, and impulses 2) Abnormal behaviours have meaningful causes that therapists can discover (free association) 3) People’s present problems are rooted in childhood experiences 4) Emotional expression and the opportunity to re-experience significant past events emotionally are critical aspects of therapy 5) When the patient achieves intellectual and emotional insight into previously unconscious material, the causes and the significance of symptoms become evident/conscious/aware, often causing the symptoms to disappear - Freud’s psychoanalysis was the first form of psychotherapy. - It is the therapists role to guide the session/offer insight/be directive - The goal of psychoanalytic therapy is to make the unconscious conscious – to make the patient aware of previously “repressed impulses” conflicts, and memories that generate psychological distress.

Answer 184

1) Free Association: clients say whatever is on their mind. 2) Interpretation: The therapist develops hypotheses and explanations about the origin of the patient’s difficulties and shares them with him or her 3) Dream Analysis: The therapist’s task is to interpret the relation of the dream to the patient’s daytime experience and the dream’s symbolic significance 4) Resistance: Patients avoid confrontation and anxiety associated with uncovering previously repressed thoughts, emotions, and impulses. 5) Transference: Patients project intense, unrealistic feelings and expectations from their past onto the therapist (aka projection) (research suggests that we do often react to people in our present lives in ways similar to people in our pasts) 6) Working through: Therapists help patients work through or process, their problems, and help patients to confront old and ineffective coping responses as they re-emerge in everyday life

Answer 185

- Poor external validity – Freud saw a limited population. - Extensive research demonstrates that understanding our emotional history, however deep and gratifying, isn’t required to relieve psychological distress. To improve, patients typically need to practice new and more adaptive behaviours in everyday life - The support the therapist provided was more related to improvement than to insight - Several meta-analyses suggest that psychoanalytic treatment, though clearly helpful to some patients, may be somewhat less effective than cognitive-behavioural therapies, which don’t emphasize insight

Answer 186

- nondirective therapy centering on the client’s goals and ways of solving problems - Goal is self-actualization, self-awareness, and authenticity - Person-centered therapy (non-directive therapy - therapist does not try to lead the session or offer suggestions/insight, just listen). - Focuses on assuming responsibility for decisions, living fully, and finding meaning in the present - The therapists listens, without judging or interpreting, and refrains from directing the client towards certain insights. Involves active listening (echoing, restating, and clarifying). - Carl Rogers encouraged therapists to exhibit genuineness, acceptance, and empathy. Involves unconditional positive regard (nonjudgmental acceptance of the clients feelings). - Can lead clients to feed frustrated since the therapist will not provide suggestions or guidance, just listens

Answer 187

Difficult to falsify. How do we measure the point at which a patient is “self-aware” and “authentic”?

Answer 188

1) A strong therapeutic alliance is extremely helpful to the ultimate success of any therapy (good connection/rapport between client and therapist) 2) Empathy and positive regard ARE modestly related to therapy outcome 3) Person-centered therapy is more effective than no treatment. However, it may not be much more effective than placebo such as chatting for the same amount of time with a nonprofessional. 4) Some studies suggest that Person-Centered therapies and experiential approaches often result in substantial gains in many patients and may be comparable in effectiveness to cognitive behavioural therapies. However, much of the research comes from clinical anecdotes and case studies – so it is hard to compare such treatment to other approaches. 5) Avoiding disturbing feelings rather than accepting them can make difficulties worse. Ultimately, these therapies are generally successful, however there is disagreement on the level of success.

Answer 189

- rational emotive therapy | - becks cognitive therapy

Answer 190

- a directive, confrontational form of psychotherapy designed to challenge clients’ irrational beliefs about themselves and others. - Our vulnerability according to Ellis is a product of the frequency and strength of our irrational beliefs - E.g., “I must be perfect”, “I must be worried about things I can’t control”

Answer 191

a therapy designed to help patients stop their negative or “distorted” thoughts as they occur and replace them with more objective or positive thoughts

Answer 192

treatment that attempts to replace irrational cognitions and maladaptive behaviors with more rational cognitions and adaptive behaviors. Seeks to make clients aware of and reverse their irrational and negative thinking, and replace it with new ways of thinking combined with..... - behaviour therapy - behaviour modification - behavioural activation - role playing

Answer 193

- self-awareness not the focus. Current problem behaviours are the problem. (specific problem behaviors and current variables that maintain problematic thoughts, feelings, and behaviors) (goal is to focus on here and now, not focus on childhood) - For example, you can become aware of why you are highly anxious during exams and still be anxious (just because you have insight to why you are anxious does not make you less anxious, behavioral modification can help)

Answer 194

uses learning (i.e.,methods of reinforcement) principles to eliminate inappropriate or maladaptive responses.

Answer 195

- Actions affect attitudes. Getting individuals to do things. When people are depressed they wanna stay in bed and not do things, if they continue to do that they will not get better → so although it may be hard to make them engage in activities, it is helpful in the end - Experiments support the “behavior affects attitudes” concept. In one study, students who were induced to write self-praising essays later expressed higher ratings of self-esteem compared to those induced to write an essay on social issues. If you can get depressed people to engage in non depressed beahviours that can rub off on their attitudes and make them feel less depressed

Answer 196

- They’re more effective than no treatment or placebo treatment - They’re at least as effective and in some cases more effective than psychodynamic and person-centered therapies. - They’re at least as effective as drug therapies for depression - In general, CBT and behavioral treatments are about equally effective for most problems - Third-wave approaches have scored successes in treating a variety of disorders, including depression and alcoholism

Answer 197

- systematic desensitization - flooding - exposure therapy - response prevention - aversion therapy

Answer 198

- Person is trained to relax in the presence of his or her fear object. (e.g. phobia of public speaking). A behaviour therapist might help you construct a hierarchy of anxiety-triggering speaking situations, and pair the relaxation response to each step of the hierarchy. - reciprocal inhibition: says that clients can’t experience two conflicting responses simultaneously (can’t be relaxed and anxious

Answer 199

Exposes a person to their fear object for an extended period of time.

Answer 200

therapy that confronts clients with what they fear with the goal of reducing the fear

Answer 201

technique in which therapists prevent clients from performing their typical avoidance/compulsive behaviors (exposure therapy and response prevention treat OCD)

Answer 202

Pairs undesirable behaviour with a noxious stimulus so that the behaviour, in time, evokes an unpleasant association. (medication that makes you sick when you drink alcohol → makes you not like alcohol/consume alcohol)

Answer 203

- Consumer Reports survey (n=2900) found that 89% of those surveyed reported they were at least “fairly well satisfied.” Of those who recalled feeling fair or very poor when starting therapy, 9 in10 now were feeling very good, good, or at least so-so. “The evidence overwhelmingly supports the efficacy of psychotherapy” in one meta-analysis that combined many studies - For people who completed a full 16-week treatment program, the depression had lifted for slightly more than 50% of those in each treatment group (cognitive therapy, interpersonal therapy, and drug therapy), but for only 29% of those in the control group 1) People often enter therapy in crisis, and when the crisis passes, they may attribute their improvement to the therapy. 2) Clients may need to believe the therapy was worth the effort. Difficult to admit investing time and money in something ineffective. 3) Clients generally speak kindly of their therapists. Even if the clients’ problems remain, the client gained a new perspective, learned to communicate better and his mind was put at ease. 4) The Placebo effect, can lead to significant symptom relief based on our expectations and hope that we will do better.

Answer 204

- behavioural therapy - cognitive-behavioural therapy - best for depression, anxiety disorders, obesity, marital problems, sexual dysfunction, and alcohol problems.

Answer 205

1) Spontaneous remission - The client’s recovery may have nothing at all to do with the treatment. We all have ups and downs. Many psychological problems are self-limiting or cyclical and improve without intervention. 2) The placebo effect 3) Self serving bias - Even when they don’t improve, clients who are strongly invested in psychotherapy and have shelled out a lot of money in the pursuit of well-being can persuade themselves they’ve been helped 4) Retrospective rewriting of the past - we may believe we’ve improved even when we haven’t because we mis-remember our initial (pretreatment) level of adjustment as worse than it was. We expect to change after treatment and may adjust our memories to fit this expectation. 5) Regression to the mean - extreme scores tend to become less extreme on retesting

Answer 206

Dopamine (DA) hypothesis suggests symptoms of schizophrenia are linked to overactive or hypersensitive DA systems 1) Agents that raise DA levels produce psychosis (e.g., amphetamine/cocaine) and can induce psychosis that resembles paranoid schizophrenia 2) Amphetamine and cocaine use worsens symptoms in patients with schizophrenia and can be treated with neuroleptic drugs (block dopamine). 3) Agents (antipsychotics) that decrease DA levels decrease schizophrenia symptoms 4) Clinical effects related to DA inhibiting potency 5) Unmedicated schizophrenia patients show elevated brain DA receptors. This suggests that DA neurons might be hypersensitive in schizophrenia But....... - Antipsychotic drugs do not cure schizophrenia - Studies fail to reveal an excess of dopamine (DA) or DA metabolites (therefore more related to dopamine receptors being hypersensitive) - Antipsychotics block DA promptly, but symptoms can remain for weeks - Antipsychotic drugs can treat mania, which may involve norepinephrine (NE) rather than DA, so NE may be implicated

Answer 207

- Antidepressants – increase serotonin, norepinephrine, & dopamine in the synapse. - Inhibit neurotransmitters from being taken back up into the synaptic cleft - SSRIs – increase 5-HT (serotonin) in the synapse. - Yet most medications likely work on multiple neurotransmitter systems - There’s also no scientific evidence for an “optimal” level of serotonin or other neurotransmitters in the brain - Many medications, including antidepressants, may exert their effects largely by affecting the sensitivity of neuron receptor rather than the levels of neurotransmitters

Answer 208

person with no professional training who provides mental health services

Answer 209

psychotherapies including psychodynamic, humanistic, existential, and group approaches with the goal of expanding awareness or insight (self awareness)

Answer 210

integration of opposing aspects of the personality, like passive vs aggressive tendencies, into a harmonious "whole"

Answer 211

treatment that strengthen social skills and targets interpersonal problems, conflicts, and life transitions (eg, family disputes, retirement, depression, substance abuse, eating disorder)

Answer 212

therapy that aims to integrate different and sometimes opposing aspects of personality into a unified sense of self (focuses on accepting responsibility, being in the here and now, awareness, acceptance and expression of feelings)

Answer 213

human beings construct meaning and mental illness stems from a failure to find meaning in life

Answer 214

treatment of the patients attitudes towards his/her existence

Answer 215

therapy that treats more than one person at a time

Answer 216

12 step self help program that provides social support for achieving sobriety

Answer 217

negative feelings about a slip up in abstinence can lead to continued drinking

Answer 218

family therapy approach designed to remove barriers to effective communication. problems in families often lie in the dysfunctional ways they communicate, solve problems, and relate to one another

Answer 219

treatment in which therapists deeply involve themselves in family activities to change how family members arrange and organize interactions

Answer 220

assessment of thoughts, emotions, and behaviours that arise in the moment in situations in which they occur in everyday life use portable cell phones, computers, tablet devices, and fitness trackers to record their thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and even physiological responses, such as heart rate, as they arise in real-life situations

Answer 221

research procedure for examining the effectiveness of isolated components of a larger treatment

Answer 222

technique in which the therapist first models a problematic situation and then guides the client through steps to cope with it unassisted

Answer 223

therapists teach clients to avoid extreme reactions to others unreasonable demands (role playing)

Answer 224

client engages in role playing with a therapist to learn and practice new skills

Answer 225

method in which desirable behaviours are rewarded with tokens that clients can exchange for tangible rewards

Answer 226

therapists teach clients to prepare for and cope with future stressful events

Answer 227

shift from behavioural and cognitive to assist clients with accepting and being mindful of and attuned to all aspects of their experience (acceptance and commitment therapy) Instead of trying to change maladaptive behaviors and negative thoughts, third-wave therapies embrace a different goal: to assist clients with accepting and being mindful of and attuned to all aspects of their experience in the moment, including thoughts, feelings, memories, and physical sensations. Consistent with this goal, research suggests that avoiding and suppressing disturbing experiences, rather than accepting or confronting them, often backfires, creating even greater emotional turmoil

Answer 228

use of medication to treat psychological problems

Answer 229

medical practice that customizes interventions to maximize success in treating patients with specific psychological or medical disorders and conditions

Answer 230

treatment for serious psychological problems in which patients receive brief electrical pulses to the brain that produce a seizure

Answer 231

brain surgery to treat psychological problems

Answer 232

implantation of a small electrical device under the skin near the breastbone to stimulate the vagus nerve to treat severe treatment resistant depression

Answer 233

motor problem including holding the body in bizarre or rigid postures, curling up in the fetal position, and resisting simple suggestions to move. may also repeat phrases in a parrot like manner (echolalia)

Answer 234

- therapy that aims to integrate different and sometimes opposing aspects of personality into a unified sense of self - help clients become more aware of their feelings - accept responsibility for ones feelings - live in the here and now (don't focus on past)

Answer 235

- therapist ask client from chair to chair creating a dialogue with two conflicting aspects of their personalities (good boy vs spoiled brat) - goal: integrate opposing aspects of clients personality

Answer 236

- 2 groups pitted against each other --> animosity - how do we change that? - engage the groups in activities that require them to cooperate to achieve an overarching goal --> decreased hostility and animosity between groups

Answer 237

- focuses on free will - people are free to choose socially constructive or destructive life paths - claimed that human nature is entirely positive --> not true, humans can be very aggressive and selfish

Answer 238

- treatments that integrate techniques and theories from more than one approach - it is difficult to evaluate and eliminate rival hypotheses

Test #4 Flashcards

(262 cards)