What was the 1947 UN partition plan and how did it increase tensions in the Middle East?
The UN partition plan tried to resolve the growing conflict between the Jews and the Arabs in Palestine. The plan states that the Jews would receive 55% of the land (whilst only making up 10% of the population) whilst the Arabs would receive the rest. This excluded Jerusalem which would be an international zone controlled by the UN. The refusal of the agreement by the Arabs increased tensions because it demonstrated the incompatibility of the two groups to coexist in the same country.
How effective was the UN’s response to the Six Day War?
In November, the UN passed Resolution 242 which called for permanent peace based on the withdrawal of Israeli armed forces from occupied territories such as the Sinai Peninsula or the Golan Heights and the respect for the right of every state in the area to ‘live in peace within secure and recognised boundaries, free from threats or acts of force.’ Peace negotiations went nowhere because Israel liked the new security these occupied territories gave them. The UN was never able to secure peace between the Israelis and the Arabs.
What were the causes of the 1973 War?
Anwar Sadat wanted to end the war of attrition along the Suez Canal as the fighting was draining Egypt’s resources. Egypt also wanted to regain the Sinai which was lost during the 1967 war. Sadat attempted discussions with Israel to stop the fighting, including being prepared to recognise the State of Israel, however Israel was unwilling to discuss. Sadat also wanted US onside before the war(expelling anti-American members of the government) but the US was too busy with Vietnam and ignored this. Sadat realised that the stalemate along the Suez could only be broken by war.
What were the outcomes of the 1973 war for Egypt?
Launching the surprise attack on Israel increased Arab unity, Arab nationalist sentiments and Arab pride. Sadat felt it made up for the humiliation of the 1967 losses. Egypt achieved its aim for the US to be more friendly to Arab states and take their needs into account and became more willing to persuade Israel to enter peace negotiations.
What role did the US play in the 1973 war?
The US remained staunch in its support for Israel. They airlifted a huge amount of weaponry to Israel after the Arabs’ initial attack. This was partially due to needing to out-do the Soviets supply to the Arabs but also to please domestic opinion which was very sympathetic to Israel. The US encouraged Israel not to attack Cairo as they didn’t want Sadat to fall and a more radical government to take over. The US called the shots regarding ending the war as they were the only power Israel would listen to. This made them the dominant power in the Middle East in 1973.
What were the outcomes of the 1973 war for Egypt?
Launching the surprise attack on Israel increased Arab unity, Arab nationalist sentiments and Arab pride. Stat felt that it made up for the humiliation of the 1967 losses. Egypt achieved its aim for the US to be more friendly to Arab states and take their needs into account and became more willing to persuade Israel to enter peace negotiations.
What role did the Soviet Union play in the 1973 war?
The Soviets supplied arms and supplies to Egypt to keep them from turning to the US. The Soviets wanted to assist the Arabs and gain prestige whilst also avoiding an escalation of conflict which might lead to directly engaging in fighting with the US. They almost failed this aim when the Soviets threatened to enforce the ceasefire and stop Israel from invading Cairo. Ultimately, it was the US who held the cards when it came to ending the conflict and thus the dominant power in the Middle East at this time.
How was oil considered a weapon after OPEC was formed in 1960?
The Six Day War led to the closure of the Suez Canal until 1975. This forced oil tankers to take a much longer route which led to oil shortages in Europe. Saudi Arabia (main OPEC nation) became he financier of the PLO and one of Israel’s most outspoken critics. In April 1973, the Saudi oil minister warns the US government that unless the Americans did more to help the Palestinians and restore Jerusalem to the Muslims, the Suadis might refuse to increase oil production and keep prices very high.
What impact did the OPEC Crisis have on Britain and the US?
The OPEC nations wanted to seek revenge on those countries who supported Israel in the 1973 War and wanted Israel to evacuate the occupied land taken in 1967. The Arab oil states out a complete embargo on the sale of oil to America and the Netherlands. By December 1973, the price of oil had quadrupled. This had a huge impact on the US and Britain. Both countries faced surging petrol prices. Even though no embargo was placed on Britain, because OPEC countries reduced oil production by 25% they were also greatly affected which included rationing petrol sales and introducing the 3-day week where factories and businesses were only able to be powered for 3 instead of 5 days.
What was achieved at the Treaty of Washington, 1979?
A framework for peace between Israel and Egypt. It was agreed the Israeli forces were to withdraw from the Sinai permanently, Egypt would regain the Sinai within three years, Israel would have free passage through the Suez Canal and the Straits of Tirana. However, the Sadat and Begin could not come to an agreement on the Palestinian problem. Egypt wanted a self-governing Palestinian authority and fro Israeli troops to withdraw from the West Bank and Gaza but Begin refused.
Why did Iraq attack Iran in 1980?
Iraq was majority Sunni Muslim whereas Iran had undergone a Shia Muslim Revolution in 1979 led by Ayatollah Khomeini. Iraq wanted to gain complete control of the Shatta al-Arab waterway and gain secure outlet to the sea. Iran was left considerably weaker after the Revolution due to Western boycott on Iranian goods and therefore Saddam Hussein felt Iran was an easy target.
Why did the US support Iraq in the Iran-Iraq War (1980-88) and how did they do this?
The USA supported Iraq as they did not want Iran controlling too much of the Gulf oil. The US also didn’t want a collapse of pro-Western regimes in the Gulf which may happen if Shia Revolution spread. The USA helped Iraq make chemical weapons and used satellites to locate Iranian troops. After the ceasefire is called, the US impose economic sanctions on Iran to stop them from procuring nuclear weapons.
What were the outcomes of the Iran-Iraq war, 1980-88?
In 1988 Iran accepts a ceasefire because its economy was left in ruins, they had lost a huge proportion of their population, and it was worried about direct conflict with the US. Despite Ayatollah Khomeini dying in 1989, Iran’s Islamic Republic continued to garner support but, as the US wanted, did not spread to other Middle Eastern countries. Long term, the Iran-Iraq War paves the way for Iraq to invade Kuwait which leads to a 180 in US policy and the eventual downfall of Saddam Hussein.
What were the causes of the 1991 Gulf War?
Despite economic pressures, Saddam Hussein continues to build his military machine. Saddam terrorises his people and riots and strikes occur against his government. Despite several attempts to overthrow him, Saddam remains in power. In 1961 Iraq tries to claim Kuwait as its own after the British leave but the Arab League stops them. In 1990, Saddam blames Kuwait for purposely overproducing oil to make oil prices fall. Kuwait wants their loan back which they gave to Iraq during the Iran-Iraq War but Saddam argues that Iraq had defended the whole ME and so doesn’t give it back. Finally, Iraq accuses Kuwait of drilling into Iraq’s oil and 3 days later Iraq invades.
What were the terms of the ceasefire for the 1991 Gulf War
Iraq had to pay reparations. They had to abide by the no-fly zones. Iraq had to destroy all weapons of mass destruction (biological, chemical, or nuclear). Iraq agreed to trade sanctions until they got rid of all their WMD.
How successful was the US’ involvement in the 1991 Gulf War?
The US was very successful as they manage to create a coalition of 34 countries and 600,00 troops against Iraqi forces. As the US was able to get both Arab countries (Egypt and Syria) and Muslim countries (Pakistan) on side, Saddam was not able to make this an Arab or Muslim issue. Once Iraq was pushed out of Kuwait, the US called on the Kurds and the Shias to try and overthrow Saddam but they were too weak and so the US established no-fly-zones and created a safe Kurdish Region in the north.
Why did the US and Britain invade Iraq in 2003?
Despite the UN agreeing that by 1994, Iraq had no WMD, Britain and the US were convinced that they did (partly due to a defector coming out and saying Iraq was hiding their WMD). In 1997, Saddam kicks out the UN’s WMD inspectors. George W. Bush (Republican) becomes President in 2000. This, coupled with the 9/11 attacks increased the US’s fear of Islamism and the US has a surge in feeling that they need to introduce Western values across the world. The US also feared that Al-Quaida had links to Iraq. The US and Britain invade Iraq in March 3003 despite not having the authority of the UN.
What was the impact of the 2003 Iraq invasion on the Iraqi people?
The devastation left by the Iraqi invasion was immense. There was widespread looting, no law and order and peoples quality of life greatly deteriorated. Services such as water, sewage, disposal and electricity worsened. Organised gangs took control of many parts of the country. The US fired on demonstrations. Many Iraqi soldiers were demobilised which contributed to an insurgency, where 20-50,000 armed people tried to resist the uS occupation. In 2005, elections were held. Most voters on sectarian lines (meaning they vote with their religion), as there were 60% of Shia in Iraq, 60% of Iraqi Parliament was made up of Shia politicians. However, it wasn’t until 2008 that the daily death toll started to decrease. US troops eventually left Iraq in 2011.
How can the Eisenhower Doctrine (1957) be considered a turning point I the role of the Great Powers in the Middle East?
By 1957, the USA and the Soviet Union were engaged in the Cold War. Eisenhower asked for both economic and military aid to oppose the spread of Communism in the Middle East. Before this, the US’ policy had been to condemn or support actions in the Middle East e.g condemning British and French involvement in the Suez War or threatening Iran during the Mossadeq coup. Their interests in the Middle East were also mostly reactionary. Post-1957 the US has more direct involvement in the Middle Eastern conflict such as airlifting supplies to Israel during the 1973 war or defending Kuwait in the Gulf War and invading Iraq in 2003.
What was the Mossadeq Coup, 1953?
Mohammed Mossadeq nationalised Iranian oil (which was previously controlled by the British) in 1951. This is a hugely popular thought throughout Iran! Britain wanted to overthrow Mossadeq to take back control of Iranian oil. They started by withdrawing its workforce and encouraging other Western oil companies not to but Iran’s oil. The British couldn’t topple Mossadeq on their own and so they enlisted help from the US. They put pressure on the Shah using threats and money to dismiss Mossadeq and replace him a pro-Western Prime minister. The new MP went on to join the Baghdad Pact and carry out the ‘White Revolution’.
What were Britain’s political aims in the Middle East until 1956?
Britain wanted to retain their imperial power. They ensured that the LoN’s mandates gave them sufficient influence in the Middle East. Britain also wanted to maintain control over the Suez Canal with France. Britain needed friendly governments in the Middle East to ensure a pro-British foreign policy. For example, Faisal was made King of Iraq and Abdullah was made the Emir of Transjordan. Britain wanted to gain Jewish support in the US. This led to the Balfour Declaration which stated the British governments support for a Jewish homeland in Palestine.
What were Britain’s economic aims in the Middle East until 1956?
Britain wanted control of oil. Britain had a 47.5% share of the Iraqi Petroleum company. Since Iran discovered it had oil in 1908, Britain had control of its oilfields. With the support of the US, Britain carried out the Mossadeq Coup to maintain control of Iran’s oil, demonstrating the extreme lengths they would go to. Britain wanted to ensure the protection of its trade links, which led to its involvement in the secret deal made with France and Israel in the 1956 Suez War after Nasser nationalised the Suez Canal.
What were Britain;s military aims in the Middle East until 1956?
Britain wanted to position itself as a global power and maintain its imperial legacy. This included crushing the 1920 Iraq rebellion. Britain maintained military bases in Egypt even after they achieved independence in 1922. Britain also wanted to maintain peace in Palestine. They responded harshly to the 1936-9 Arab Rebellion. Attempted to limit Jewish immigration as part of the White Paper (1939) but was inevitably unsuccessful and handed over authority over Palestine to the UN in 1947. Britain wanted to protect its control of the Suez Canal which led to their involvement in the secret deal made with France and Israel in the 1956 Suez War after Nasser nationalised the Suez Canal. Britain wanted control of Palestine so they had greater influence over the Suez Canal.
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The Great Powers in the Middle East 1900-3930
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The Final Years of the British Mandate 1945-825
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The First Arab Israeli War 1948-924
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The Suez Crisis of 195625
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The Six Day War of 196727
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War, oil and peace making 1967-796
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Nasser, Egypt and Arab nationalism0
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The PLO, Lebanon and the first Intifada3
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The USA, the Soviet Union and the UN in the Arab Israeli conflict0
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The challenge of Israeli-Palestinian peacemaking 1990-20110
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Turkey, iraq, Iran and the West 1908-20110
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From Arab nationalism to Islamic fundamentalism0
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THEME 123
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THEME 21
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THEME 30
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THEME 444
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Key dates59
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Israeli Prime Ministers15
