1
Q
CONTEXT:
A
- Athens had endured, within the preceding decades, various political organisations from democratic rule to tyranny.
- The Peloponnesian War had devastated Athens and undermined the strength of their political institutions
* The Republic can be read as a response to the challenges surronding Athens at the time, provding a new ideological blueprint to create a stable and strong city from scratch.
* Plato attributed the fall of Athens to the absence of virtuous leadership, meaning the city would inevitably collapse
* Criticised the Inadequacy of Athenian democracy, where mob rule and demagoguery was too likely - Palto’s vision within ‘The Republic’ portrays the ideal city under the just rule of philosopher-kings, obtaining the necessary prerequisites to govern wisely.
* Not only was Plato attempting to introduce an entirely new concept of political organisation to defend against the deficienes which corrupted Athens, but also responding to the failures of democracy within Athens. - The execution of Socrates under democracy was percieved by Plato as gross injustice and his dialogue within ‘The Republic’ immitated this:
* Socrates is berated by a stubborn and difficult Thrasymachus who refuses to accept his argument, is symbolic of Socrates attempt to educate and enlighten the youth being misconstrued as manipulation.
* Socrates was born into a corrupt society (democracy) yet he turns out to be the paragon of human conduct and therefore was gifted with eyesight, whereas those who executed him were blind and corrupted by the democratic regime.
-relates to Plato’s argument that philosophers’ are given wrong reputations and their value is not recognised
* It emphasies Plato’s point; rulers do not recognise the power and value philosophers have, and their regimes will suffer accordingly.
2
Q
PLATO’S CRITICISM OF ATHENIAN DEMOCRACY
A
- The power of the masses
* Plato outlines how the character of most men are prone to vice because they are weak in the face of sedcution, and only a rare few have a godlike nature who can exercise ‘control over the desiring element.’
* however, in AD, the masses were endowered with signif. power and as a result were easily impressionable, swayed by demagogues or populist leaders
* such men lacked the necessary virtues to insitute good governance, and instead were ruled by their desire, which created an unstable and unjsut regime.
* AD failed to recognise the correct virtues needed in a rule and thus a volatile political system was prevelant. - The absence of meritocracy:
* leaders who exuded the most charm and charisma wielded the most poplitical support
* therefore, the absence of intellecutal traits and virtuous behaviour empowered men most united towards positions of power - Plato illustrastes the dangers of this throughout his philosophy. - Regime instability
* their failure to elevate men worth of power within their political system, created instabiltiy because there wre frequent changes in leadership, in response to the impressionable masses who were easily manipulated.
* failed to identify the true nature of these men, because they too had unjust souls due to the absence of appropiate education and knoweldge.
3
Q
John Cooper: Pyshcological state
A
- For Plato’s society and individual’s to function, they require a certain pyshcological state.
- Justice, in accordance with Plato’s theory, is not just a means to an end, but the only source of happiness
* Cooper characterises Plato’s theory of justice as a reponse to the Sophists who defined justice as a concept serving the interests of the powerful. - Tripartite theory of the soul - outlines how each component has a function, and a just person is the one where reason rules.
- Educational importance - recog. the importance placed on education to fulfil Plato’s concept of justice, as they require certain skills to make rational decisions and cultivate virtues necessary in achieving justice e.g., self-control
4
Q
Melissa Lane: Socrates and Plato introdcution - how they differ
A
- Socrates argued that wisdom required one to acknowledge their own ignorance, and philosophy’s end goal is to disover the truth and promote the good
- Plato discuss the distinction between appearance and reality, where we live in a material world which is a mere shadow of a higher reality, one which can only be apprehended via reason
- Lane differentiates between Socrates who’s individual method of questioning and emphasis on ethics, and Plato’s broader philosophy which concerns metaphysical and epistemological concepts.
5
Q
Malcom Schofield - questions how desireable Plato’s ideal society really is by critiquing the readitional reading of ‘The Republic’ as a ideal blueprint.
A
- Schofield emphasies how Plato’s theory pertains to the context of political instability characteristing Athens at the time
* Whilst the traditional reading of ‘The Republic’ deems his philosophy to be a coherent theory about government, Schofield argues the importance of recognising it as a repsonse to his contemporary soicety instead. - Plato’s theory is too idealistic and impractical because his CW seems to be divorced from reality
* A directed focus on abstract ideals whilst overlooking practical concerns characterises his philosopy as idealistic. - Plato institutes a heirarchis organisation of society, with elitist sentiments through the division of scoeity intwo three main facets; rulers, soldiers, and laborers.
* Schofield argues this top-down structure is arbitrary in nature and ignorant towards the reality of social roles - He critiques the unattainable likelihood of philosopher-kings ruling with perfect wisdome, and further questions how this could ever possible be attined through educations.
- Schofield declares Plato’s rejection of democracy is rooted in his authoritarian conception of politics, which overlooked the most critical juncture in democratic politics - representation and participation in decision-making.
6
Q
Scholarship development and contributions
A
- Leo Strauss recognises the importance of reading Plato’s work with the acknowledgement it is a response to the decine of Athens.
* Strauss - The Republic is an alternative strucutre to democracy, because Plato argues tyranny is the end result for deocratic regimes. - Jacob Klein putforth the argument that Plato’s work should be understood as a component to a larger philsophical project, responding to the intellectual and historical context of his time
* rejecting the reading of ‘The Republic’ as a standalone piece of work, greater understanding can be ahceived when we study the grammatical features within this book. - G.R.F. Ferrari: Plato’s work is centered around crucial conceits like the nature of justice, rather than creating a blueprint for an idea society to be founded upon
- Martha Nussbaum: Plato’s work should be read as showing a deep concern towards ethics and morality, whilst he does address politics in depth, his work is more than merely political philosophy
* it is also about the role of emotions in political life.
7
Q
Critique ideas
A
- Totalitarianism - the elite heriarchy instituted by Plato over a democratic governance draws a resembelence to modern dictatorships
* MY ARGUMENT: whilst we can understand the reason for his anit-democraic attitude lies in his scathing contempt towards Athenian democracy, where Socrates was persecuted, it is imporant we analyse his work within his context and our modern understandings of democracy and authoritarianism.
* links to: Jacob Klein putforth the argument that Plato’s work should be understood as a component to a larger philsophical project, responding to the intellectual and historical context of his time
* rejecting the reading of ‘The Republic’ as a standalone piece of work, greater understanding can be ahceived when we study the grammatical features within this book. - Failure to be realistic
* MY ARGUMENT criticise how Plato’s conception of politics is too orderly and refined, whereas real politics is convulated and messy with various dynamics creating new problems.
* We cannot attribute this idealism to hsi context, but Athens itself is degenerating and collapsing because of the realties of both men and politics
* further, the overemphasise on the rule of reason over passion insinuates emoitons are unproductive and irrelevant to both human life and politics
* this is false - emotions are fundamental to human existnece, and therefore should be prominent in politics too.
8
Q
What is atypical about Plato’s thinking?
A
(1) Philosophers should be Kings, and Kings should be philosophers
–the only way to achieve good governance is if philosophers obtain political power
—the most virtuous and educated men, capable of governing
–those most suited to power are those who do not seek it
(2) Does not align with factionalism, suggesting compartmentalisation of diff. types of government are flawed
–sometimes society’s govt. need to be blended
—prevalent in his work; includes both democratic and anti-democratic characteristics
—-e.g., socialism: seek collective happiness and prevent oppression
—-fascism: censorship and deception is acceptable to maintain order
—-oligarchical: power is concentrated in the hands of a few (but these are the men who, through trials and tribulations, have proven to be the most virtuous and worthy).
(3) Athens / Sparta divide
–creates a constitution without aligning with either state
–Athens - intellectually driven
–Sparta - militaristic in its organisation
9
Q
How does Plato define justice?
A
‘it is just to pay everyone what is owed to them’ (B1,pg6)
–respond to someone according to the calibre of their intensions, .: response accordingly
10
Q
What are the questions Plato asks about Justice?
A
(Q1) The issue of judgement
–to what extent are our friends always just, and enemies unjust?
—how do we remain just?
(A1) ‘It is just to help a friend if he is good, and harm an enemy if he is bad.’ (pg11)
–how do we distinguish good and bad if we are biased in our opinion of their character; this affects our assumptions about their intentions (our history with them).
(Q2) How to remain just
–can a just man remain just if he inflicts injustice, or is he from now on unjust, as a just man would never engage in unjust action?
–if not, then it is not just to respond accordingly, but unjust instead.
11
Q
What is Glaucon’s argument about justice? (not about what justice is, but if being unjust is more profitable)
A
- Justice is merely adovcated becuase of the ‘reputation, prestige and rewards (it) brings’ (49).
- a just man is only happy if he is recognised as just
- whereas an injust man, maintaining a facade of being just, will be happy to act unjustly to achieve success
- Asks: are men just because they truly seek justice, or do they seek the ‘rewards and recognitions’ (41) of others than elevate them?
- Argues: it is the reputation of being just/appearing to be just which improves ones life, and if this were to be abolished, no rational man would persue a just course
- the best route a man can take is to ‘to act unjustly, and use the proceeds to pay for sacrifices.’ (47) .
* in this sense, they achieve the benefits assocaited with just men, but the personal gains one can achieve by acting unjsut is too great to forsake - achieve their own ambitions and pacify the Gods too.
- the best route a man can take is to ‘to act unjustly, and use the proceeds to pay for sacrifices.’ (47) .
12
Q
Why does Plato believe justice is more profitable than injustice?
A
- Injustice, through its natural wickedness, is ‘incapable of action through faction and disagreement.’ (33)
- justice ‘produces cooperation and friendship’ (32)
- justice itself is not given a coherent or explicit definition, but is accepted as associative with a good soul, whereas injsutice resides in a bad soul
13
Q
What is justice in a city sense?
A
- ‘justice is the business of everyone performing his own task’ (127)
- societal relations are harmonious when each indiv. stays within their own craft
- again, Plato’s concern for innovation shines through - does not want the system to be disrupted by indiv. intermingling between crafts.
- the happiness of the collective > the happiness of the indiv.
14
Q
What is Plato’s response to Thrasymachus’s idea of justice?
A
**If we assume that the strong will rule as they are the ones capable of achieving positions of power, then according to Plato’s philosophy, philosophers will still rule in a virtuous way; interests of the philosopher align with the interests of the public.
- imprt. -> do not want to rule, but rule out of obligation.
- fear the oppressive rule of another, therefore it is in their interests to rule in a harmonious and stable manner because they do not seek power
- —‘**fear makes decent people rule’ **(26) -> not ambition or prestige that entices them, but the fear that no other decent man will rule
- —‘the good and wise person will not be prepared to outdo the person like him, but only (…) his opposite.’ (30)
- —philosophers understand this unavoidable necessity
15
Q
What is a just man?
A
- a just man has a ‘perfect unity of diverse elements’ (141)
* the core elements of his soul co-exist and fulfil their designated function, but they do not intercahnge as they are fixed and separate entities
* w/out this harmony, dishamrony is inevit. (e.g., the spirited faction is in control) and this creates an unjust man.
16
Q
Where does Plato beleives peoples’ concepts about justice and injustice start?
A
At a young age, therefore education and upbrining should be tailored to create just and honourable men and women
* city needs guardians, but Plato is concerned about the education and upbrining of the defenders of this city
* (1) censorhip of unfavourable stories
* e.g., one which shows there are no repercussions to unjust action
* this would normalise betryal, deciet and and brutality amongst their own people - dangrous of those in posiitons of defence, who need to foster trust.
* e.g., stories blaming God
* this would allow men to evade indiv. respb. by blaming unsavoury characterisitcs and instances on God, rather than their own deficint character
17
Q
What does Thrasymachus say about justice?
A
‘Justice is simply what is good for the strong.’ (B1,pg. 15)
–the ruler will forever and always act to achieve their own ends; through their strength and knowledge, they come to understand how injustice is more profitable.
–stronger rulers will engage in the unjust rule because it is individually beneficial, and as the pinnacle of strength, they are not constrained by any other higher power
18
Q
Why is the tyrannical man unhappy?
A
- Lack of satisfaction
* he is a slave to ‘foreign madness’ because he indulges in every whim or desire, purging ‘the soul of restraint’ (287)
* lives a tormented life - the absence of rational judgement forces him to pursue every pleasure, but can never be satisfied. - The dangers of lust
* within a tyrannical man, ‘lust will dwell within him as a tyrant, in total anarchy and lawlessness.’ (290)
* satisfaction is impossible to achieve because the series of immoral beahviour emabarked upon by this man does ‘not satisfy his desires in the slightes.’ (296)
* living in accordance to his desires, he has banished reason and self-discipline, which cannot defeat the ‘bodyguard of lust.’
* lust makes a slave out of a man - his addiction to pleasure combined with the absence of rationality traps him in a hopeless pursuit of satisfying an Insatiable diet; a ‘true tyrant is a true salve.’ (296)
* just has his people are slaves to him under his tyrannical rule, he himself is a salve to his own desires - again, Plato shows how the soul of a ruler and their respective regimes exist as mirror-images of one another.
19
Q
Why is being just more profitable?
A
- The soul of a tyrant is the ‘furthest removed from law and order’ (306) because the rational facet has been made subservient to desire.
* Plato believes if one is unjust, insofar as to say there is an imbalance within their soul, unhappiness in inevitable.
* You are merely a salve to your desires, and without rational judgement shining a light on what is good, satisfaction is impossible.
* Contrastingly, ‘praiseworthy actions (…)bring true savage elements of our nature under the control of the human.’ (309)
20
Q
How does Plato connect a man to their correlating political regime?
A
- ‘five types of city (…) fice dispositions of the soul’ (254)
* aristocracy exists as the mirror-image of philosohpers
21
Q
Timocracy
A
- timocracy is the natural progression from aristocracy following civil war within a city
* Palto does not lament the loss of A, because he understands a breakdown of the natural order is inevitable as permanence is impossible
* mistakes will inevit. be made, it just so happens this change corresponds to a change of ‘the sovereign body itself.’(255) - The new regime may retain characteristics belong to its predecessor, but like its ruler, they are more ‘naturally cut out for war than peace’ (257)
* Plato links the regime with the composion of the man’s soul by stating he neglects the balance between artisan and physical education .: both he and the regime are more militaristic in nature
* suggests there is almost a dichotomy within the ruler’s soul: ‘feeding the rational element in his soul (…) other feed the desiring and spirited elements’ (259)
22
Q
Oligarchy
A
- the ‘poor man is excluded from power’ (260)
- oligarchs are self-serving and ambitious men who pritotise their desires over the needs of the general public
* they decide the worth of a man corresponds to his net worh .: those with the funds to buy a suitbale character, are those worthy of power
* Oligarchs are mastered by their desires because they lack self-discipline, therefore the ‘rational and spirited parts’ (264) of their souls are imprisioned.
* these men suffer from imbalanced souls, are victims of desire, and blinded by their distored physical reality because they negelct what is good.
* therefore, the regime immitates their rulers; poverty is widespread within a soicety where there is ‘a lack of education (…)poor upbringing and constitutional arrangement.’ (263)
23
Q
Democracy
A
- The poor will revolt the against the system of oppression and impoverishment which constrains them, and by extension the oligarchs themselves
- Now empowered with freedom, they have the ability to choose a system of goverance alinging with their preferences
* this creates an interesting paradox; it is hard to compel obedience amongst those who believe they have the right to pursue indiv. happiness and make their own decisions (directly opposes Paltos concept of collective happiness > indiv. happiness, and self-discipline meaning the acceptance of being ruled)
* this can create disorder - Identifies three desires:
* necessary -> survival
* unnecessary -> harmful
* Productive -> functional
* the democratic ruler will live, and therefore rule, in accordance to whichever desire is the current master of him; he exerts no control or authority over his own mind
* the self-discipline and restraint which once created order and allowed one to master oneself, have been negelcted and thus decayed
* e.g., what was one shamed, is now understood as courage
* Platos def. of courage: cannot identity what to be scared off when under the domination of desire
* the mind suffers a coup where discipline is exiled and desire claims its place .: cannot be remedied with wise or reformative arguments.
24
Q
Tyranny
A
- the desire for money resurfaces as money-makers feel the distribution of wealth is an act of theft
- creates a vaccum for a figurehead who will end this exploitative system; leads to the ‘growth of a tyrant’ (279)
* buyoed by public support, any and all action is deemed legitimate .: when he uses violence to remove his opposition and exile his enemies, it is justified in the public eye
25
What narratives should stories tell and avoid?
* all stories must idoloise the characteristics of virtuous and good men, to normalise this pattern of behaviour amognst the next generation of guardians.
* encourage them to gallantly face death and not become distraught over loss
* an appropiate mindest will esnure men are 'obedient to their masters, and being themselves masters of the pleasures of drink, sex and food.' (76) instead of having a 'casual attitude (…) towards wickedness.' (80)
* reject narratives which depcit Gods as weak and subject to their emotions e.g., anger, lust or jealousy
* this is a poor presentation of how great power should act .: all stories should preach discipline and honour to cultivate the ideal role model all men should aspire to be
* 'bear up, my heart. You have borne yet worse than this.' (78)
* attack on achillies vs sholarship attach on the unrealistic character of his politics, undermining the importance of emotion; ignorant to the nature of mankind
* Plato is emphasising the importance of choosing 'appropiate models to immitate.' (84)
26
How imporant is environment in the education of guardians?
* the environemnt can shape the composition of the soul, enhancing its natural wickedness or goodness
* it is crucial the environment created is one which fosters well-discipline and honourable men.
* if they develop more wicked traits, jealousy will grow and men will compete with those they were entrusted to protect
My argument: but how virtuous can men really be if you have to control every inch of their life, from what they drink to what they read, in order to create a good soul. If given the chance, are men really that much more naturally inclined to be wicked than good?
27
How can a man become a 'master of himself?'
* Education and upbringing
* during his formative years, education will provide the skillset to acknowledge and master his emotions, rather than being subservient to his desires
* he will develop rationality which will bring harmony into his soul
28
What power does rhythm have?
* the way stories are told is fundamental to the success of creating virtuous men, as 'rhythm and mode penetrate more deeply into the inner sould than anything else.' (90)
* storytelling is powerful becuase it is a kind of instrument which can control and influence men's behaviour and thoughts
* Plato depicts the mind as a instrument of self-discipline
* mind must pass authroity and judgment over what the body engages in
* must avoid sexual pleasure because it makes men irrational and devious, rather than disciplined and honourable
29
What argument does Plato make in defence of women?
* 'women too should recieve these two disciplines' (147) - artisan and physical education
* Plato argues there is no species in existence where the women cannot do what the male does
* He argues that each task needs to confrom to the nature of the indiv., but sex does not change the nature of an indiv.
30
How can environment impact a philosopher?
* a poor upbringing and environment can plague the qualities of a great philosophers
* e.g., a corrupt political system based on power-seeking and individual ambition can use their insitutions to transform a mans' character if is it incompatible with the ruler's desires.
* only a godlike character could remain unchanged in the face of this
* it can cause the 'death and destruction of the finest natures' (199)
* a poor upbrining can change the trajectory of a philosophers life - one from the pursuit of knwldg. and truth, to a shallow life entertaining various desires
* it is imporant to preserve their nature inclination towards wisdom, but it can easily be destroyed when they are impressionable youngsters
31
What makes the best ruler?
* The best ruler is 'utterly determined to do what is in the city's interests.' (105)
* therefore, they must remain unchanged and unperturbed after engaging with seduction and grief
* believes children should be tested as a young age to idenify those which such a disposition
My argument: * If given the chance, humans have the ability to redeem and improve themselves, rather than testing them when they young there should be a test after they have the necessary education and understanding of what it means to be good. I understand plato's commitment to the natural inclination of the soul, to either goodness or wickedness, but he seems to overlook the human ability to grow and develop.
32
Why are philosphers suited to rule?
* they are 'lovers of wisdom'
* they value truthfulness and intelligence which allows them to discover what is true and good
* they are not seduced by other desires because they derive pleasue from the pursuit of knowledge, and this is rooted in rationality and logic.
* if they are led astray by other desires, then they are not true philosophers
* The basic requirements to enjoy knwldg. are a pleasant nature and good memeory
* the mental derexity and hardship of this craft will create resentment and envy amongst those without these characterisitcs
33
What separates philosphers from others?
* their nature is rooted in the truth
* as intellecutal discoverers and explorers, they seek genuine understanding and knowledge - not pacificed with theories and beliefs rooted in convention
* the purusit of knwldg. means they will invariably stumble upon the truth, and by extension what is good.
* this discovery, sought after through their own natural composition, gifts them eyesight amongst a rabble of blind men.
* they, therefore, remain unperturbed by desire and seducation, becuase through their knwldg., they have discovered that what men call desire and want is infact seducation and chaos.
* being the disciples of wisdom gifts them with self-discipline and rational judgement, preventing them from being led astray by temptation.
34
Why don't philosophers currently rule?
* Philosophers do not rule because of an unfair by reputation imposed upon them by those ignorant to the powers of knowledge
* the ignorance towards the power of philosophers comes form an unfair reputation penalising them as 'useless.'
* Plato argues the power of knwlodg. is ignored by those who do not seek knwldg, .: commonly misunderstood philosophers as useless, but instead their understanding can transfrom society.
* Philosophers do not seek to rule, but are begged to
* recog. they obtain a rare nature which leads them to desire knowledge and discovery, and therefore a nature befitted for a ruler.
35
Why aren't philosophers in politics?
* Plato alikens false philosophers to 'escaped prisoners taking refugee in temples' (200)
* these imposters can never find true wisdom because their intentions behind a pursuit of knwldg. are power-hungry and ambitious
* they pursue knwldg. out of desire, not rational judgement
* therefore, what they discover will be a tained truth, leaving them blind but with the illusion they can see.
* Philosophers do not desire roles in politics becuase the two natures juxtapose one another; in a twisted political regime, a craft based on truth will always be shunned.
* the regime is deficient, not the philosopher.
36
Explain the cave analogy
* The cave represents a city existing in darkness because knowledge is foreign to them, and they are plagued by assumptions and beleifs.
* the cave is the world of appearances whereas outside it is the world of ideas.
* those who leave the cave and enter the sunlight symbolsie the philosopher's who naturally seek wisdom and knwldg.
* the discomfort in adjusting to the sunlight is representative of the discomfort a philospher will face during their craft
* they must return to the cave, not willingly but out of an obligation to shine light on the shadows plaguing the cave; it is the philosophers responsibility to replace their reality which has been distorted through assumptions, with a true reality rooted in accepted truths instead.
* 'law does not exist for the exclusive benefit of one class in the city' (226)
* the philospher must return to fulfil their role in society as ruler; it is a rare quality of man who possess the abiltiy to leave the cave, and becuase he has 'seen the truth of what is beautiful and just and good' (226), he's required to harmonise and enlighten society with their knowledge.
* no one else can rule becuase 'ruling must be courted by those who are not in love with her (227)
* philosophers are devoted to the pursuit of wisdom, not power or ambition, therefore by nature their rare characteristics forces them to wear a crown out of an unavoidable necessity.
37
Why should philosophers be idolised?
* in their pursuit of knwldg. the will discover what is 'divinde and ordered'
* they act in accordance to what they know, so it is fitting that they would rule in a divine and ordered way; bringing harmony and justice to society and
* this nature is rare, and almost godlike, .: Plato decalres they must all be 'tested in the fire of pleasure and pain.' (208)
* for philosophers to truly exude this calibre of nautre, they must have the intellecutal bravery and strength to achieve wisdom in all areas.
38
Why is Plato sad about philosophy?
* a 'legitimate philosopher' is one who displays 'self-discipline, courage and greatness of spirit.' (245)
* their natural skillset and aptitutude when handling complex information is far superior to that of their peers - makes them capable of seeking the truth
* Palto - philosophy is falling into disrepute because people with the wrong nature are seeking education for the wrong reasons
* .: Plato believes education should not be compulsory, instead, those who are suited to be philosophers will naturally seek education
* important because irrespective of one having the mental aptitutde to be a philospher, if they are of deficint character, education would be wasted on them because they will become distraced by other desires.
39
What is 'Good?'
* The Form of the Good is the most fundamental of all Forms as it exists as the quintessance of knowledge and truth.
* like the Sun illuminates objects in the physical world for us to see and understand, the Good acts as a shinning light in the Form world and allows us to see their true natures.
* as philosophers do not accept ideas without proof, the Form world through Good will allow them to develop the truth and understadning of our world.
* Good exists as the exeplar of morality and the basic principle of all human conduct
* Plato believes all desires are desired because of their connection to Good, meaning Good is the supreme object of desire.
* Unlike the phyiscal world which is ever-changing and chaotic, the Form world is fixed and perfect
* provides the perfect foundation to build human knwldg. and understanding, we can understand our world better because of it.
40
Why is reason more imporant than thought?
* Plato stresses that when we look at an object or its nature, we see with our eyes, which distorts the truth because we attach assumptions. These assumptions are not rooted in proof, therefore show no knowledge.
* to see the truth, we require the 'means of thought itself,' (241) to identity the pure origin of understanding, giving someone knoweldge over a subject rather than just assumptions.
* the ability to wield through requires the pursuit of education, because education is the tool which will bring truth and 'the knowledge of what always is.' (235)
* this is in reference to the Form world, which is fixed and perfect, it never changes as it is rooted in logic and raitonal judgement. Accessing this world through education allows the philosopher to no longer live in a distored physical reality
* this can cause an ascension of the soul towards enlightenment because they are looking with their soul, rather than eyes.
41
What is courage?
* 'the preservation, in all situations, of correct and lawful belief about what is to be feared and what is not.' (124)
42
Why is wisdom superior?
* Plato outlines three facets of the soul:
* Spirited -> 'lover of victory and (...) honour (298)
* Rational -> 'lover of learning and wisdom' (298)
* Desire -> 'lover of profit'
* Rational facet is the only one rooted in the truth becuase it uses reasoned judgement, whereas the other two facets are emotional behaviours.
* comparatively, a 'lover of honour leads to victory,' and a 'love of victory to violence and bad temper.' (305)
43
What are the dangerous of imitaiton?
* imitation has a 'destructive influence on the minds of thsoe who hear it' (313)
* the is becuase one cannot 'distinguish knowledge from ignorance or imitation,' (317) because of its 'power of bewitchment.' (320)
* the imitator does not have the knowledge on which he speaks, therefore, 'it is appearances, not realities they are creating.' (318)
* imitation will 'destroy the rationl part' of your soul by arousing and feeding 'an inferior part of the soul.'
* this is because 'if you accept the honeyed Muse, in song or poetry, pleasure and pain will be twin kings in your city.' (328)
* i.e., citizens, seduced by poetry and art, will seek immediate gratitifcation through pleasure, rather than developing their character through trials and tribulations
* exchange pleasure at the expense of reason and virtue.
44
What did Plato mean by: 'What can be seen vs what can be understood' (216)
* What can bee seen:
* we see images, but they are not free from assumptions.
* we cannot invesitgate or identify the origins of neither the assumptions of the object, therefore we we do not understand what we see, we are merely creating assumptions.
* to see something does not mean we have 'an intelligent understanding of (these) subjects.' (219)
* What can be understood:
* ideas and objects whose origins we can identify free from assumptions, creating accepted truth and a true understanding of this subjects.
* The soul must be free from assumptions to be just
* false beliefs can distort our reality, the soul is inherently rational and seeks knwldg. of the Forms to understand the true reality beyond the physical world
* justice for Plato is also a process of internal harmony and balance between wisdom, raitonality and knwldg. wihtin ones soul, this is only achievable by living in accordance with the reality in the Form world.
* not being led astray by the falsifications of the physical world.
45
What is the difference between emotional and rational behaviour?
* Plato displays a difference between emotions by showcasing how anger and desire are different: 'anger can sometimes be at war with the desires (…) implies they are two distinct things.' (136)
* From this, we see emotional behaviour can juxtapose rational behavioiur because every just emotion has an unjust counterpart that bring balance to the soul.
* to achieve this harmony, the rational side must always rule, whilst the spirited side remain in subordination, acknowledged but not given the power to instruct.
* Self-discipline in this aspect occurs when emotion does not make decisions, but instead the rational side instructs and authorises acceptable behaviour.
* 'exercise control over the desiring element.' (139)
* one is wise when the rational element is in control
* they are made brave through their spiritied faction, but must remain in subordination
* self-discipline is accepting the need to be ruled (wider citizenry).
46
How does Plato organise a society?
* it is 'pleasure and pain that unites (a city'
* the organsiation of a society through familia bonds replaces the individualistic attitude which breeds jealousy and competition with comradery and respect instead.
* having a shared sense of family between men means that conflcit is escelated from man v man to brother v brother
* the 'shame and guilt' (164) are higher and prevents unnecessary conflcit
* to organise society this way, liberates everyone from the stuggle of multitasking various occupations e.g., running a household, raising children, providing for a family
* instead, they are free to dedicated themselves to their craft
47
What can threaten a just city?
(1) Individual happiness
* Plato states the happiness of the community must be of a greater importance than the happiness of the individual
* e.g., if a guardian chooses to seek indiv. happiness, they neglect their duty and jeopardise the safety of civilians
(2) 'wealth and poverty' (113)
* having too much welath removes the incentive to reamin just and act in ccordance to virtue
* poverty prevents citizens from accessing the necessary tools to improve themselves and their sitution
(3) 'education and upbringing' (116)
* the system needs to be perfectly refined becuase it is the very foundation responsible for the creating just men and women
* if the system is flawed then its men will be flawed, and by extension, society itself.
(4) Innovation
* Must preserve tradition and question innovation --> the impact of an external stimulus has the power to overthrow an entire city
48
What bone do you have to pick with Plato?
* the issue of cencorship
* The censorship of these stories does align itself with aspects of fascism, not allowing people to be exposed to stories which could potentially harm them, proposes an interesting dichotomy.
* Under plato's philosophy, the philosophers will be the ones deciding what stories are suitable to educate the next generation of defenders and guardians.
* This man is supposedly the pinnacle of knoweldge understanding of the world; is it possible that his censorship will actually be a democratic characteristic instead?
* Is it still fascist in character if censorship is improving the character of men, or is freedom dependent on the ability for men to have access to all information - good or bad, and make their decision thereafter.
* Is it better to judge the virtue of a man by exposing him to good and evil, and then seeing what he chooses in light of this? It is easy to remain virtuous if virtue is all around you, it harder if wickedness also co-exists
49
How can one prevent suffering when they are old?
If a man is of virtuous character and has not committed any fraudulent behaviour in their years, they will enjoy their older years without 'a bunch of insane masters' (b1,pg6).
--do not fear the afterlife because they will not suffer the consequences of an unjust life, and thus are liberated from this torment.
50
What influenced Plato's work?
The death of Socrates and the violence of the thirty
51
What is the 'tripartite soul' theory?
a just city is one where all individuals fulfil the role they are most naturally inclined to do, and relations between the population are appropriate.
--when elements are balanced, a harmonious and economically stable city can preserve
---this falls apart when there is an imbalance of elements e.g., a tyrannical man seeking power will jeopardise the equilibrium of society and contaminate their relations with others
52
What makes a Republic strong?
'sense of loss' (xxxi)
--philosophers will make great Kings because they will mourn the life of contemplation and learning, preventing them from abusing power because they do not want to rule, therefore are most suited to power.
53
What is Plato's argument about nature and skills?
* Plato argues that those with a natural disposition for a certain skill, share the same nature with others within that profession, this includes women
* For Plato, 'same natures should be given the same occupations.' (153) -> because a city can only be great if they fully utilise the potential of their citizens, including women
* He argues 'natural attributes are evenly distributed between the two sexes (…) woman is naturally equipped.' (152)
* by this logic, women and men who show the potential to be guardians should share the same education and upbrining, becuase regardless of sex, women and men are capable of the same things.
* he conceeds: 'they differ only in strength and weakness.' (152)
54
What are Plato's views on succession?
* to create a formidable succession, they must preserve and encourage the lineage of guardians
* the best procreate with the best, but the child is then raised by nannies to excel like their parents; cannot be a child-raiser and a guardian because Plato stipualtes one profession per individual
* procreating is also part of a guardian's occupation, need another generation of men and women with similar characteristics
55
What are Plato's views on war?
* the young should be exposed to it in order to build their craft and encourage the paternal aspect of their elders in the form of protection
* a 'civil war' (171) between Greek cities should be understood as a grievance, rather than a war.
* despite living in different Greek cities, they are all part of the same people
* engage in conflict with anticipation of eventual reconcilliation, not permanent hostility -> methods and attacks should not be brutal
* however, if at war with a 'barbaric' or 'alien race,' then savagery and brutality is encouraged.
56
What is the immoratality of the soul?
* a soul can never be destroyed and in the afterlife they face God's judgment; the just will be rewarded and the unjust will sufffer the consequences of their actions.
57
QUOTE BANK:
* released 'from a bunch of insane masters' (B1,p3)
* 'it is just to pay everyone what is owed to them' (pg6)
* 'it is just to help a friend if he is good, and harm an enemy if he is bad.' (11)
* 'justice is simply what is good for the stronger (B1,pg 15)' --> Thrasymachus.
* 'fear makes decent people rule' (26)
* by 'the good and wise person will not be prepared to outdo the person like him, but only (…) his opposite' (30)
* 'incapable of action through faction and disagreements' (33)
* 'produces cooperation and friendship.' (32)
* 'rewards and recognitions'(41)
* 'the best policy will be to act unjustly, and use the proceeds to pay for sacrifices.' (47)
* 'reputation, prestige and rewards (it) brings' (49)
* 'define a friend and enemy by means of knowledge and ignorance' (60)
* 'obedient to their masters, and being themselves masters of the pleasures of drink, sex and food.' (76)
* 'casual attitude (…) towards wickedness.' (80)
* 'bear up, my heart. You have borne yet worse than this.' (78)
* 'choose appropriate models to imitate' (84)
* 'which metres are appropriate to meanness of spirit' (90)
'rhythm and mode penetrate more deeply into the inner soul than anything else does.' (92)
* 'utterly determined to do what is in the city's interests.' (105)
* 'wealth and poverty' (113
* 'education and upbringing' (116)
* 'the preservation, in all situations, of correct and lawful belief about what is to be feared and what is not.' (124)
* 'justice is this business of everyone preforming his own task' (127)
* 'anger can sometimes be at war with the desires (…) implies they are two distinct things.' (136)
* 'exercise control over the desiring element.' (139)
* 'perfect unity of diverse elements.' (141)
* 'women too should receive these two disciplines' (147)
* 'different natures ought to pursue different occupations (…) woman's nature was different from a man's nature' (150)
* 'they differ only in strength and weakness.' (152)
* 'natural attributes are evenly distributed between the two sexes (…) woman is naturally equipped.' (152)
* 'same natures should be given the same occupations.' (153)
* 'pleasure and pain which unites (a city)' (160)
* 'shame and guilt' (164)
* 'lover of all wisdom.' (177);
* 'those who make no use of them' (192)
* 'death and destruction of the finest natures (199)
* 'escaped prisoners taking refuge in temples' (200)
* 'tested in the fire of pleasure and pain' (208)
* 'most important branch of study is the form or character of the good.' (210)
* 'What can be seen vs what can be understood' (216)
* cannot have 'an intelligent understanding of their subjects.'} (219)
* 'law does not exist for the exclusive benefit of one class in the city' (226)
* 'seen the truth of what is beautiful and just and good' (226
* 'ruling must be courted by those who are not in love with her (227)
* 'knowledge of what always is' (235)
* 'means of thought itself' (241)
* 'self-discipline, courage and greatness of spirit' (245)
* 'five types of city (…) five dispositions of the soul' (254)
* 'the sovereign body itself' (255)
* 'naturally cut out for war than peace' (257)
* 'feeding the rational element in his soul (…) other feed the desiring and spirited elements' (259)
* 'poor man is excluded form power' (260)
* 'what is not valued is neglected' (261)
* 'lack of education(…) poor upbringing and constitutional arrangement' (263)
* 'rational and spirited parts' (264)
* 'foreign madness' 'purged the soul of restrain' (287
* 'bodyguard of Lust' (289)
* 'lust will dwell within him as a tyrant, in total anarchy and lawlessness (290)
* 'true tyrant is a true slave' --> 'not satisfy his desires in the slightest' (296)
* 'lover of victory and (…) honour' {spirited}, 'lover of learning and (…)wisdom' {rational}, 'lover of profit' {desire
* 'love of honour leads to envy, love of victory to violence, and bad temper' (305)
* 'furthest removed from law and order' (306)
* 'praiseworthy actions (…) bring the savage elements of our nature under the control of the human' (309)
* 'destructive influence on the minds of those who hear it' (313)
* (x) 'distinguish knowledge from ignorance or imitation' (317)
* 'it is appearances, not realities, they are creating' (318)
* 'power of bewitchment' (320)
* 'arouse and feed' 'an inferior part of the soul' and 'destroy the rational part.
* 'if you accept the honeyed Muse, in song or poetry, pleasure and pain will be twin kings in your city.' (328)
