1
Q
- Name the secondary word-formation processes.
A
- Shortening (to modify-> mod)
- Blending (emotion+icon=emoticon)
- Backformation (editor->edit)
- Reduplication (tip-top, chit-chat)
2
Q
- Name the marginal word-formation processes.
A
- Sound interchange (blood->bleed)
- Eponymy (quillotine, wellingtons)
- Shift of stress (present, to present)
- Sound symbolism (teeny-weeny)
- Word manufacture (Polaroid)
3
Q
- What does it mean when we say that a word-formation process is productive?
A
How productive a w-f process is depends on how many new lexemes can be formed by it.
4
Q
- What is affixation?
A
Affixation is a productive word-formation process in which new lexemes are produced by adding affixes to at least one root lexeme. (prefixaton, suffixation)
5
Q
- Give some noun-forming suffixes.
A
-tion, -ity, -er, -ness, -ism, -ment, -ant, -ship, -age, -ery
6
Q
- Give some verb-forming suffixes.
A
-ate, -en, -ify, -ise/-ize
7
Q
- Give some adverb-forming suffixes.
A
-ly, -ily, -ally, -wise, -wards
8
Q
- Give some negative prefixes.
A
un-, im-, in-, il-, ir-, dis-, non-, mis-, de-
9
Q
- Give some diminutive suffixes.
A
-y/-ie, -ock, - ette, -let, -ling, -o
10
Q
- What is compounding?
A
Compounding is a process of creating new words by combining at least two root morphemes (household, highlight).
11
Q
- According to their structure, compounds can be divided into:
A
1.Simple (sunlight= sun+light)
2. Complex (backbencher= back+bench+er)
12
Q
- According to the relationship between their components, compounds can be divided into:
A
- Coordinative/Copulative (deaf-mute)
- Subordinative (blue-eyed)
13
Q
- According to the word-formation processes involved, compounds can be divided into:
A
- Mono-formative
- Poly-formative
14
Q
- Explain why some compounds are called literal. Give some examples.
A
The meaning of the morphemes is compositional (can be interpreted literally).
ex.= classroom, sunlight, deaf-mute
15
Q
- Explain why some compounds are called metaphorical. Give some examples.
A
They cannot be interpreted literally.
ex.= chatterbox, pickpocket, nightcap, pick-up (n)
16
Q
- Give one example of a compound adjective, compound verb, and a compound adverb.
A
compound adjective- deaf-mute, blue-eyed
compound verb- double-click, outrun
compound adverb- thereafter, sometimes
17
Q
- What is conversion?
A
Conversion a very productive w-f process in which a word is converted into a different word-class without adding any affix. (same spelling, same pronunciation)
(bottle- to bottle)
18
Q
- What is indirect conversion? Give an
example.
A
A type of conversion where a noun is not converted to a verb, but it is pre-modified by verbs such as have, get, take, make, give (ex. take a shower, have a smoke)
19
Q
- The process of shortening can be divided
into these types:
A
Clipping
Acronymy
Initialisms
Graphical Abbreviation
20
Q
- Clipping can be defined as …
A
… a w-f process that involves cutting off one or more letters or syllables of a word.
21
Q
- Depending on which part of the word is clipped, we distinguish these types of clipping:
A
- Initial
- Medial
- Final
22
Q
- Give two examples of initial clipping and
final clipping.
A
Initial- aeroplane-> plane; robot-> bot
Final- photograph-> photo; gymnasium-> gym
23
Q
- What is the difference between transparent and non-transparent clipping?
A
Transparent- the clipped lexeme directly corresponds to a part of the original word. (sister->sis)
Non-transparent- the clipped lexeme does not directly correspond to a part of the original word. (umbrella-> brolly)
24
Q
- What is the difference between acronyms and initialisms?
A
Acronyms are abbreviations formed from the initial letters of multiword expressions and read as regular words. (NATO)
Initialisms- -//- but they are always spelled out (BBL- bi: bi: el)
25
43. What is special about graphical
abbreviation?
This type of shortening is restricted to written language. They are never pronounced as abbreviations. (road-> Rd.)
26
44. What is blending? Give two examples.
Blending is a process in which two words merge into one. Usually the final part of the first word and the initial part of the second word are clipped and the remaining parts are glued together.
ex. br(eakfast)+(l)unch= brunch;
sm(oke)+(f)og= smog
27
45. Define the term back-formation. Give two
examples.
Back-formation can be defined as a formation of a new lexeme by means of a deletion of a suffix-like element from an apparently complex form (shorter word is derived form a longer from by omitting a real or a imagined suffix)
ex. editor-> to edit;
lazy-> to laze
28
46. Give examples of full and partial
reduplicatives.
Full (the 2 morphemes are identical in every aspect) = chop-chop, bye-bye, goody-goody
Partial (the 2 morphemes are not identical) = tip-top, chit-chat, hocus-pocus
29
47. Define lexical ellipsis.
It refers to an omission of (typically) one word of a multiword phrase/collocation. (The resulting lexeme usually represents a different word class)
30
48. What is sound interchange? Give two
examples
This process typically involves a change of word class by the mutation of one or more phonemes within the word/root. (blood->bleed; breath->breathe)
31
49. What is interesting about the words present, export, frequent, absent, etc. from the word formative point of view?
Shift of stress- They can have a different word class depending on the placing of the stress and also different pronunciation.
32
50. Name some main types of meaning.
* denotative
* connotative
* social
* expressive
* collocational
33
51. Can a word have a lexical and a grammatical meaning at the same time? Explain. Give an example.
Yes, a word can have both grammatical and lexical component (grammatical free or bound morphemes, and lexical morphemes)
ex. feet- lex, ee- gramm. meaning
34
52. What do the synonyms X (cop) and Y (policeman) have in common, and how do they differ in terms of meaning?
* They name the same thing but they have a different lexical meaning.
* Policeman: denotative meaning
* Cop: expressive meaning
35
53. Define the term connotation. Give an example.
Connotation names those facets of meaning which do not affect the lexeme's basic components of meaning.
ex. needle- associated with pain, fear, hospital...
36
54. Give an example of a word which is both emotionally and stylistically marked.
Abhor, exquisite
37
55. Use the adjective X(heavy) to explain the notion of
collocational meaning.
"heavy" can have different meanings in combinations with different words: heavy suitcase (weighing a lot), heavy rain (pouring), heavy schedule (busy), heavy work (difficult)
38
56. What is polysemy?
When a word has acquired a new meaning and this meaning is related to the original meaning. (the coexistence of many possible meanings for a word or phrase.)
39
57. Why is polysemy so common?
Because the lexical meaning of words is prone to various changes or semantic shifts.
-words often acquire a new meaning, which is related to the original meaning.
40
58. What is the difference between sentence and utterance meaning?
**Sentence meaning**- can be defined in terms of the combination of at least 3 components: *a) the literal meaning of the individual words
b) the order of the words
c) the semantic scope of these words*
**Utterance meaning**- The meaning that sentences have on a particular occasion and in a particular context.
41
59. Characterize the procedure called componential analysis of meaning.
The **denotative** meaning of a word can normally be characterized as the **sum** of its basic components of meaning. (mother- female, adult, parent)
By using such components of meaning, we can differentiate between similar entities within particular semantic fields.
42
60. Give some types of semantic changes.
**Specialization and Generalization,
Metaphor,
Metonymy,
Personification,
Irony,
Hyperbole,
Understatement,
Euphemism,
Dysphemism**
43
61. Specialization of a meaning occurs when...
**... the word´s range of reference gets restricted.** (liquor- past- every liquid, now- only alcohol)
44
62. What does the process of generalization of meaning refer to?
It is a process in which a word´s meaning changes to encompass a broader group of referents (past- bird- young bird; now used in general sense)
45
63. What is the connection between semantic motivation and the notion of metaphor?
The new meaning is derived from the original one (older one based on similarity or analogy)
ex. a hand of a clock
46
64. Metonymy can be defined as ...
The act of referring to something using a word that describes one of its qualities or features
(Učebnica: It is a contiguity of meaning, where one piece of the extralingual reality is closely connected with another or forms part of it.)
47
65. How do hyperbole and understatement differ?
**Hyperbole**- is an exeggerated statement which should not be taken literally (it took me forever)
**Understatement**- is a statement that makes sth seem less important, impressive, serious (it is a bit cold today- freezing)
48
66. How is litotes formed?
By expressing sth by means of the negation of its contrary (not bad- good)
49
67. Give two euphemisms and two cases of personification.
Pass away (die), between jobs (unemployed)
Kettle singing on a stove, a stupid mistake, my heart danced
50
68. What components of meaning do the words A, B, C, and D have in common?
**plane,motorbike, helicopter, bus:** fuel-powered means of transport,
**bicycle, motorbike, helicopter, hang-glider:** not public means of transport
51
69. Explain the term euphemism.
It refers to a substitution of an expression which is taboo, negative, or too direct by an expression that is mild, comforting, or evasive to avoid shocking or upsetting someone. (pass away)
52
70. Define the notion of dysphemism.
It refers to the use of a negative or disparaging expression to describe something or someone. (grub, paws)
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