1
Q
outline Semiology by Barthes
A
- semiology is the study of symbols
- meaning is communicated through symbols which are made up of a signifier (the thing itself) and the signified (the meaning). this process depends on the connotations of a sign
- there are 5 types: symbolic codes (symbols and their meaning - e.g. heart for love), semantic codes (codes with hidden meanings - e.g. red for danger), action codes (something happening as a result of something - e.g. pulling out a gun - death), enigma codes (something that engages audiences), cultural codes (cultural references)
- the denotation is a sign of its literal meaning (e.g. dog denotes a mammal that barks)
- denotations include connotations - the associations one may have with a denotation (e.g. thoughts and feelings associated with dogs)
- key words: denotation, connotation, repetition, myth
2
Q
outline Narratology by Todorov
A
- a typical narrative follows a 3 part structure:
- all narratives can be seen as moving from one equilibrium (everyday life of a character) to a disequilibrium (a disruption to that in which the hero has to overcome) to a new equilibrium (resolution of disequilibrium)
- this movement entails a transformation (e.g. the heroes defeat the villain)
- the narrative expresses the values and ideologies of the narrative
- Todorov studied children’s fairy-tale books for this theory
3
Q
outline Genre Theory by Neale
A
- Genre theory is about what genres are depending on the repeated codes and conventions within media products
- genre conventions aren’t fixed, but evolve over time
- difference from conventions can engage audiences as well as repeated conventions
- genre codes and conventions can be played with to become hybrids with other genres
- key words: participation in conventions, repetition of codes, hybridity
4
Q
outline Structuralism by Levi-Strauss
A
- Structuralism is the theory of hidden rules / binary oppositions that govern a structure
- there are binary oppositions which are pairs of opposed, conflicting forces (hot-cold, male-female, nature-nurture)
- the creation of BO by producers creates conflict, drama, entertainment as well as meaning
- identifying the pairs of binary oppositions which structure narratives can be used to determine the ideological messages within a text
- key words: binary-opposition, creates enigma + conflict, repetition creates myth
5
Q
outline Postmodernism by Baudrillard
A
- Postmodernism is the idea that society has moved beyond + away from modernism and images and signs are now the key feature of our society
- hyperreality = the idea that representations are now more powerful and ‘real’ than reality
- hyperreal = representations that don’t represent reality, but instead representations of representations
- in media, the further detached something is from reality, the more appealing it is to audiences - e.g. Disneyland
5
Q
outline Theories of Identity by Gauntlett
A
- media representations portray a wide range of different + contradictory messages about identity which can be used by audiences to form their own identities
- identities on gender and sex are less fixed as they were + have developed
- media allows people to explore and express their identities
6
Q
outline Theories of Representation by Hall
A
- representation = the process of creating meanings
- the media can represent social groups as stereotypes, countertypes or archetypes
- for representation analysis, a focus should be on who/what is + isn’t represented and suggestions of differences
- representations may intend to fix meanings in a ‘preferred reading’ by producers, but audiences ultimately contest the meaning
- key words: representations are contested, audiences implicated in reading
6
Q
outline the Feminist theory by bell hooks (no capitals)
A
- feminism is the struggle to end patriarchal oppression
- to be a feminist, you have to be politically active
- intersectionality considers how multiple identities + systems of oppression (gender, class, race) interlink and how this impacts oppression - there are levels of oppression
- media representations often reflect these oppressive ideologies
- key words: intersectionality of status entrenched under representations, white, patriarchy dominates, opposition gaze encouraged
7
Q
outline the Feminist Theory by Van Zoonen
A
- we form our ideas around gender from representations of gender in the media
- women are often objectified in media - they are seen for their bodies, not character
- gender is a socially, historically and culturally constructed thing and can vary depending on context
- W are presented as domestic beings, M are represented as individuals and more capable of business + politics
- M bodies are presented as spectacles - strong, fit from hard work, W’s bodies are presented as lustful, not produced from hard work
- key words: patriarchy, objectification of women, gender is what women ‘do’
8
Q
outline the Theory of Gender Performativity by Butler
A
- gender identity isn’t something were born with - but something that is expressed through the performance of gender roles
- gender is constructed through the performance of socially learned behaviours (rituals)
- Butler believes that gender and sexual identity cant be categorised into fixed binary systems
- not a feminist theory! as B denies sex as a cause for inequality
9
Q
outline the Theory of Ethnicity and Post-Colonial by Gilroy
A
- the ‘Black Atlantic’ consists of a cultural blend of African, American, Caribbean and British cultures
- Britain has an attachment to an airbrushed version of British Colonial history, which manifests itself in criminalising immigrants, an ‘us vs them’ approach, and a belief in the superiority of white western civilisation
- there is also post colonial melancholia (denial of ongoing effect of colonialism (ownership + exploitation of another country))
- key words: us vs them, white superiority, post colonial melancholy
10
Q
outline Power and Media Industries by Curran and Seaton
A
- media ownership is the most significant factor in the way media industries work
- the concentration of media ownership means the media industry is dominated by a small number of conglomerates (different things that are grouped together) which limits the viewpoints represented
- despite the development of online media, the established major media organisations remain dominant
- the internet doesn’t offer a level playing field for diverse voices to be heard - news is still controlled by powerful organisations
11
Q
outline Regulation by Livingstone and Lunt
A
- media regulation serves a variety of purposes and must balance a range of consumer/ citizen needs
- regulation is needed to make sure the media promotes public interests democratically
- traditional forms of media regulation are being challenged by the online and globalised media industries resulting from technological developments/ the rise of digital media such as the internet
11
Q
outline Cultural Industries by Hesmondhalgh
A
- sees media industries as being dominated by a small number of conglomerates
- media industries (companies) need to minimise risk and maximise profit to be successful
- this can be done through 5 things:
1) be vertically/ horizontally integrated
2) work across several media platforms - diversify revenue streams
3) focus on popular stars/ genres/ formats
4) controlled release schedule (staggered/ all at once)
5) detailed marketing campaign
12
Q
outline media effects by Bandura
A
- Bandura believes the media can have a direct influence on the values and behaviour of audience members
- the media can also have an indirect influence through social networks
- audiences may imitate behaviours they see represented in the media
- case study: Bandura’s Bobo Doll; what children watch can influence their behaviour
13
Q
outline Cultivation theory by Gerbner
A
- Gerbner suggests that the media can influence the audience over a long period of time through the repetition of similar messages/ representations
- these repeated messages cultivate (develop) audiences ideas
- people who have watched a lot of TV were more likely to have a negative view of the world (mean world syndrome) than those who didn’t watch a lot of TV
- people who watched a lot of TV were likely to have similar views (mainstreaming)
14
Q
outline Reception theory by Hall
A
- through shared codes (such as technical codes + genres), audiences respond to the preferred reading (how producers want you to respond) in 1 of 3 different ways:
- audiences either accept the preferred reading (the dominant position), reject it (oppositional reading), or accept some but reject other elements (negotiated position)
- audiences positions vary due to different historical, social, cultural, gender values
15
Q
outline Fandom by Jenkins
A
- participatory culture = the idea that the development of new media allows the audience to be active and creative participants rather than passive consumers
- fans play a key role in the media
- audience members become textual poachers (audiences who interact with media products) who create fan products - is becoming increasingly popular
- convergence culture = media is shared, adapted, and constantly consumed on a range of platforms
- spreadable media = content that is adapted by audience members for their own purpose and shared with others
16
Q
outline ‘End of Audience’ theory by Shirky
A
- due to technological developments, the relationship between media producers and audiences has changed
- now, content can be created by audiences - there’s less of a power hierarchy between consumer + producer - consumers now ‘speak back’ to producers
- prosumers = these amateur producers have different motivations to professional media producers
- this can create a cognitive surplus, where large numbers of people can give their time and expertise to create something (e.g. Wikipedia) - they add value to platforms
- audiences are no longer seen as a mass of people
- LFTVDs can be forced into changing story due to AUD feedback, creates inferior quality - not ST
17
Q
outline semiotics by Sassure
A
- study of reading signs
- every sign is made up of 2 elements; a signifier + signified
- signifier = the form of a sign - something which can be touched, seen, smelt etc
- signified = the idea/ meaning conveyed by the signifier
- sign = signifier + signified
- this relationship conveys meaning - one cant exist without the other
18
Q
outline semiotics by Pierce
A
- semiotics = the study of how signs communicate meaning in our culture
- sign = the smallest unit of meaning
- triadic model: there are 3 types of signs (iconic, indexical, arbitrary)
- iconic = holds physical similarities to the object signified
- indexical = holds some physical or literal connection to what is signified
- arbitrary = bears no physical/ literal resemblance to what is signified - the meaning is a culturally accepted convention
Media - Evolving Media (P2)
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Decks in class (7)
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