1
Q
Major Functions of Skeletal System
A
- Blood Formation
- Support
- Protection
- Movement
- Storage and Release of Minerals
- Storage Triglycerides
2
Q
Blood Formation
A
Blood is formed in the red bone marrow
3
Q
Red bone marrow is found in:
A
- Epiphysis of long bones
- Bones of axial skeleton
- Bone of the pelvis
4
Q
Organs protected by bone of skeletal system
A
- Skull bones surround and protect brain
- Vertebral column surrounds and protects spinal cord
- Vertebrae, ribs, and sternum protect heart and lungs
- Pelvis partially protects and surrounds reproductive organs
5
Q
How does muscle attach to bone?
A
Via tendons
6
Q
What is bone matrix made up of?
A
Calcium and phosphate salts
7
Q
Calcium is crucial for proper function of what?
A
- Nerves and muscles (especially cardiac muscle)
- Blood clotting
- Glandular secretions
- Cell division
- Activating many of the body’s enzymes
8
Q
Storage of triglycerides in form of yellow bone marrow
A
Red bone marrow replaced with adipocytes that function in storage of lipids (mainly in form of triglycerides). They can be used as chemical and energy reserve
9
Q
Four types of cells in bone tissue
A
- Osteogenic
- Osteoblasts
- Osteocytes
- Osteoclasts
10
Q
Osteogenic Cells
A
Stem cells of bone tissue that give rise to other 3
11
Q
Osteoblasts cells
A
Bone-building cells that produce the living collagenous matrix of a bone. While nonliving calcium deposits are laid down around them hardening the tissue and forming lacunae around them
12
Q
Osteocytes
A
Mature bone cells- once osteoblasts are encased in cellular matrix and fully calcified
13
Q
Osteoclasts
A
Reabsorbs and recycle old or injured bone tissue. Maintains strong and healthy bones
14
Q
Compact bone
A
Dense bone organized into 3 distinct patterns: concentric lamellae, circumferential lamellae, interstitial lamellae
15
Q
Spongy bone
A
- Lighter in density than compact bone.
- Present during bone development and can be found in marrow cavities of long bones, where the blood cells are formed and developed.
Bone matrix forms trabeculae which allow for nutrient diffusion without use of blood vessels
16
Q
3 types of cartilage
A
- Hyaline cartilage
- Elastic cartilage
- Fibrocartilage
17
Q
Cartilage
A
- Connective tissue
- Comprised of chondrocytes, housed within lacunae, suspended with a gelatinous , fibrous, and extracellular matrix
- Flexibility depends on amount of collagen fibers in matrix along with number and orientation of chondrocytes
- 2 different growth patterns appositional and interstitial
18
Q
Hyaline Cartilage
A
Acts as articular cartilage in our joints, covers ends of long bones, and supports tip of nose and much of respiratory system
19
Q
Elastic cartilage
A
Present in external ear and epiglottis, similar to hyaline, but with more elastic fibers in the matrix
20
Q
Fibrocartilage
A
Located in Body regions that require strong support and ability to withstand pressure (knee, pubic synthesis, and spine)
Obtains more rigid characteristics from rows of chondrocytes alternating with thick collagen fibers in the matrix
21
Q
Appositional growth
A
Consists of chondrocytes excreting more matrix against the outer walls of preexisting cartilage
22
Q
Interstitial growth
A
Consists of chondrocytes secreting matrix from within the cartilage. It then calcifies during normal bone growth, but this calcified cartilage is still not considered bone, as it has not yet developed into osteocytes
23
Q
Dense regular connective tissue can be found in
A
- Tendons - attach muscle to bone allowing for the muscle to pull on the bone and create movement
- Ligaments - attach bone to bone and prevent excessive movement at a joint
24
Q
5 different bone shapes
A
- Long bone
- Flat bone
- Short bone
- Irregular bone
- Sesamoid bone
25
Long bone
Bone that is longer than it is wide
26
Flat bone
Bone that is wider than it is long
27
Short bone
Bone that is just as long as it is wide
28
Irregular bone
Bone that has different bony projections off of it making the shape different and no 2 bones being the exact same
29
Sesamoid bone
1. Sesame seed shape
| 2. Found in tendons and ligaments, areas of extreme stress, that whelp to reduce friction
30
Digital bone
1. Sixth potential all type of bone
2. Bone of the skull begin to grow they join to become joint known as suture
3. As sutures begin to close there can be additional bones that can grow in the suture known as sutural bones
31
Parts of a long bone
1. Epiphysis
2. Articular cartilage
3. Diaphysis
4. Metaphysis
5. Medullary cavity
6. Endosteum
7. Periosteum
32
Epiphysis (proximal and distal)
1. Ends of the long bone
| 2. Mainly made up of spongy bone
33
Articular cartilage
1. Found on epiphysis
| 2. Typically made up of hyaline cartilage and forms the joints of the bone
34
Diaphysis
1. Shaft of the bone
| 2. Mainly made up of compact bone
35
Metaphysis
1. Sits between epiphysis and diaphysis
| 2. Area contains the epiphyseal plate, where long bones grow longitudinally
36
Medullary cavity
1. Empty cavity within the diaphysis of a long bone
| 2. Filled with red bone marrow in early childhood
37
Endosteum
Thin layer of connective tissue lining the medullary cavity
38
Periosteum
1. Dense fibrous connective tissue lining the outside the diaphysis
2. Inner layer is the osteogenic layer line with osteoblasts and allows for bone remodeling and growth
3. High innervated this causes pain when damaged
39
Ossification has 3 stages
1. Growth of the bone occurs during infancy, childhood, and adolescence
2. Remodeling of the old bone occurs to form new bone tissue during life
3. Repair of breaks or fractures in bones occurs throughout life
40
When does bone development begin
Initiation of bone development begins during fetal development during 6th or 7th week of gestation
41
Intramembranous Ossification
Bone formation that only occurs in the flat bones of the skull without use of cartilage, but rather mesenchymal stem cells
42
Endochondrial Ossification
Refers to the process of cartilage becoming ossified in order to develop into long bones
43
4 steps of intramembranous ossification
1. Development of ossification center
2. Calcification of the extracellular matrix
3. Formation of the trabeculae for blood vessels
4. Development of the periosteum
44
Steps of Endochondral Ossification
1. Development of a cartilaginous framework
2. Formation of primary ossification center
3. Development of the medullary cavity and calcification
4. Development of the secondary ossification center
5. Formation of articular cartilage, epiphyseal plate, and spongy bone
6. Closing of the epiphyseal plate and formation of the epiphyseal line
45
How do we grow from adolescent to adult?
Growth that gives adults their height happens at the growth plates of long bones and resembles endochondral bone growth
46
Hyaline cartilage of the growth plate is divided into several zones
1. Zone of reserve cartilage-furthest from the diaphysis. Contains resting chondrocytes that don’t show any signs of transformation
2. Zone of proliferating cartilage-as we move closer to diaphysis the chondrocytes will begin to multiply and arrange into longitudinal columns of flattened lacunae
3. Zone of hypertrophy-moving closer to diaphysis chondrocytes cease to multiply. Cell begin to enlarge. Walls of matrix between lacunae and matrix becomes very thin
4. Zone of calcifying cartilage-next layer closest to diaphysis is zone of calcifying cartilage. Minerals are being deposited into matrix. Mineral depositions into bone are occurring between columns of lacunae
5. Zone of bone deposition-closest to diaphysis chondrocytes die. Matrix between columns converts and blood immediately invades the area.osteoclasts remove temp bone that was deposited. Osteoblasts begin to create the lamellae depositing zone. This deposition begins to add bone to diaphysis extending it in the longitudinal growth. Called interstitial or lengthwise bone growth
47
Appositional growth (remodeling)
In order to prevent fractures the bone will increase in width or thicken to increase the bones ability to resist stress.
48
Appositional growth has 4 steps
1. Periosteum cells differentiate into osteoblasts cells. Osteoblast cells begin to secrete collagen fibers and begin to lay down bone extracellular matrix. Allows the osteocytes to begin to be surrounded by bone matrix create lacunae and maturing the osteoblasts into osteocytes.
2. Folds eventually fuse together with a tunnel center for periosteum artery. Former periosteum that is now lining the inner canal is now endosteum
3. Osteoblasts continue to deposit bone matrix now forming new concentric lamellae. Combo of new central canal, new lacunae, new concentric lamellae join to form a new osteon
4. As osteon forms, we osteoblasts continue to deposit bone creating more concentric lamellae and continuing to increase the thickness of the bone
49
Bone reabsorption
Activating osteoclasts which will release a protein-digesting lysosomal enzyme and several acids these chemicals will breakdown bone matrix releasing calcium and other minerals into bloodstream. This will reduce thickness of the bone
50
Bone growth and remodeling rely on several factors
1. Vitamins
2. Minerals
3. Hormones
Insulin
Sex hormones
Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
Calcitriol
Calcitonin
51
How much calcium does the skeletal system need to maintain homeostasis?
99% of calcium found in body
52
Parathyroid hormone (PTH)
Secreted by parathyroid glands. Function in activating osteoclasts. This instructs kidneys to retain calcium rather than excrete it.
Kidney will secrete calcitriol in response to low blood calcium levels which cause more absorption of calcium from digestive system
If blood calcium levels get too high thyroid gland will produce calcitonin to decrease osteoclasts activity and accelerate calcium deposits restoring homeostasis
53
Leptin
Another hormone that affects bone density. Inhibits osteoblasts activity. And serotonin which also inhibits osteoblast activity
54
Bone fracture are named according to
1. Severity of fracture
2. Shape or position of fracture line
3. Physician who first described given fracture
55
Steps to repairing bones
1. Hematoma formation-hematoma converted to granulation tissue by invasion of cells and blood capillaries
2. Silt callus formation-deposition of collagen and fibrocartilage converts granulation tissue to a soft callus
3. Hard callus formation-osteoblasts deposit a temp bony collar around the fracture to unite the broken pieces while ossification occurs
4. Bone remodeling-small bone fragments are removed by osteoclasts, while osteoblasts deposit spongy bone and then convert to compact bone
56
Axial skeleton consists of
Skulls, bones associated with skull, vertebral column, thoracic cage
57
Appendicular skeleton
Consist of 126 bones that support the pectoral and pelvic girdles, and of the limbs that attach to the truck
58
How many bones does adult skeleton have?
206
59
Skeleton is divided into 2 categories
Axial skeleton
| Appendicular skeleton
60
What is the purpose of axial skeleton?
Protect body’s most vital organs such as: brain, spinal cord, heart, lungs
61
How many bones does axial skeleton consist of?
80
| 14 facial, 26 vertebral, 24 ribs, 8 accessory bones
62
Where are the paranasal sinuses found
1. Ethmoid sinus
2. Frontal sinus
3. Maxillary sinus
4. Sphenoid sinus
63
Coronal suture
Front and parietal bones join to form suture
64
Sagittarius suture
2 parietal bones join to form the suture
65
Squamous suture
Temporal and parietal bones join to form suture
66
Lambdoid suture
Parietal and occipital bones join to form suture
67
Sutures within adult skull
1. Coronal suture
2. Sagittarius suture
3. Squamous suture
4. Lambdoid suture
68
Fontanelles (sutures) within adolescent skull
1. Anterior fontanelle
2. Posterior fontanelle
3. Anterolateral (sphenoid) fontanelle
4. Posterolateral (mastoid) fontanelle
69
Anterior fontanelle
Coronal and Sagittarius sutures join to form fontanelle
70
Posterior fontanelle
Sagittarius and lambdoid sutures join to form fontanelle
71
Anterolateral (sphenoid) fontanelle
Coronal and squamous sutures join to form fontanelle
72
Posterolateral (mastoid) fontanelle
Squamous and lambdoid sutures join to form fontanelle
73
How many bones does adult vertebral column consist of?
26: 24 vertebral plus coccyx and sacrum
74
Function of adult vertebral column
Function in supporting the weight of the head, neck, and truck. As well as protect spinal cord, and help maintain upright body position
75
How many of easy type of vertebrae?
1. 7 cervical. You eat breakfast at 7
2. 12 thoracic. Lunch at noon
3. 5 lumbar Dinner at 5
76
Ribs have 7 named parts
1. Head
2. Neck
3. Tubercle
4. Angle
5. Shaft
6. Eternal end
7. Vertebral end
77
Thoracic cage consists of
1. 12 thoracic vertebrae
2. 12 pairs of ribs (10 true ribs, 2 floating)
3. Sternum
78
What is the function of thoracic cage?
Guards lungs, heart, thymus gland, and other structures in thoracic cavity.
Also serves as an attachment point for muscles involved in breathing, maintaining position of vertebral column, assisting in movements of upper limbs and pectoral girdle
79
Function of appendicular skeleton.
1. Allows body movement
| 2. Protects organs used for excretion, reproduction, and digestion
80
How many bones do upper limbs consist of
60 (30 in each arm)
81
What is longest and largest bone of upper limbs?
Humerus
82
Radius and ulna
1. Comprise bones of forearm
| 2. In anatomical position radius is lateral while ulna is medial
83
What is the word for thumb?
Pollex
84
Pelvic girdle consists of
1. 2 hip bones
| 2. Sacrum
85
Function of pelvic girdle
Protect and support pelvic organs
86
What is longest and strongest bone in the body?
Femur
87
Tibia
Comprises the medial portion of lower leg
88
What bone is considered major weight bearing bone of the body?
Tibia
89
Fibula
Comprises the lateral portion of lower leg, and has no articulation with femur
90
Ankle (tarsal) bones
```
Tall- talus
Centers- calcaneus
Never- navicular- cuneiform
Take- third- cuneiform
Shots- second- cuneiform
From- first
Corners- cuboid
```
91
Structural classifications of bones
1. Bony
2. Fibrous
3. Cartilaginous
4. Synovial
92
Functional classifications of bones
1. Synarthrosis
2. Amphiarthrosis
3. Diarthrosis
93
Synarthrosis
1. No movement
| Ex. Skull sutures
94
Amphiarthrosis
Little movement
Ex. Pubic symphysis of pelvis
Cartilaginous joint that unites bodies
Of adjacent vertebrae
95
Diarthrosis
1. Full movement
| Ex. Elbow, shoulder, ankle
96
Synostosis
1. No movement
| Ex. Two frontal bones in skull
97
Three subtypes of fibrous joints
1. Sutures (immobile joints found between bones of skull)
2. Gomphoses (ligaments of collagen fibers form joints between areolar process of mandibular or maxilla and root of teeth
3. Syndesmoses ( long collagenous fiber joint between 2 bones)
98
Types of synovial joints
1. Uniaxial synovial joints
* hinge joint
* pivot joint
2. Biaxial synovial joints
* saddle joints
* condylar joint
3. Triplanar/multiaxial synovial joint
* gliding/plane joint
4. Ball and socket joint
99
Uniaxial synovial joints
Movement permitted only on one plane
100
Example of hinge joint
Elbow (consists of one convex surface that fits against another convex surface
101
Pivot joint
Found between atlas and axis of cervical vertebrae (motion is limited to rotation on a single plane
102
Biaxial synovial joints
Movement permitted in 2 directions/planes
103
Saddle joints
Proximal thumb (concave in one direction and convex in the other)
104
Condylar joint
Radius of forearm and some of the carpal bones in wrist (motion occurs in 2 planes at right angles to each other)
105
Triplanar/multiaxial synovial joints
Movements permitted in 3 or more axis
106
Gliding / plane joint
Joints between carpals of wrist (bone surfaces slightly concave or convex, mostly flat, show gliding movement)
107
Ball and socket
Shoulder and hip joints (smooth hemispherical head of one bone fits into the cuplike socket of other bone)
108
Structural characteristics of synovial joints
1. Articular capsule
2. Synovial membrane
3. Articular cartilage
4. Articular discs
5. Tendon and ligaments
6. Bursae
7. Tendon sheaths
109
What type of feedback loop maintains calcium homeostasis?
Negative feedback loop
110
Levels of calcium in blood are maintained by 3 hormones
1. Calcitriol
2. Parathyroid hormone
3. Calcitonin
111
Parathyroid hormone
1. Secreted by parathyroid gland
2. Activates osteoclasts to promote bone resorption, inhibits collagen synthesis by osteoblasts and calcium resorption from kidneys
112
Calcitonin
Decreases levels of calcium in blood by inhibiting action of osteoclasts and activating osteoblasts for calcium deposition on bones
113
Calcitriol
Increases concentration of calcium in blood by increasing its absorption in small intestines, kidneys and activating action of osteoclasts to liberate calcium and phosphate
114
Osteoporosis
Bone disorder when bone resorption outpaces bone deposition, results in bone density decrease
115
Osteoarthritis
1. Degenerative joint disorder resulting from gradual loss of articular cartilage that provides cushion to the articulation bones at synovial joints
2. Mostly affects knee and hip joints due to normal wear and tear
116
3 main layers of skin
1. Epidermis
2. Dermis
3. Subcutaneous layer (hypodermis)
117
Skin accessory glands
1. Sweat glands
2. Oil glands
3. Hair
4. Nails
118
Functions of the skin
1. Protection
2. Manufacturing vitamin D
3. Senses
4. Thermoregulation
5. Nonverbal communication
119
Epidermis
Most superficial layer
120
What are the 5 different cell types inside epidermis?
```
Stratified squamous epithelium
Keratinocytes
Melanocytes
Langerhans cells
Merkel cells
```
121
Epidermis all layers from youngest to oldest and deepest to most superficial
1. Stratum basalt (deepest layer)
2. Stratum spinosum
3. Stratum granulosum
4. Stratum lucidum (only in thick skin)
5. Stratum corneum (most superficial)
122
What is the name for the big toe?
Hallux
BIO251
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