ACEM primary - anatomy > Tissue structures and function > Flashcards

Tissue structures and function Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the 4 basic anatomical planes?

A

Transverse
Saggital
Coronal
Median (median saggital)

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2
Q

Define the median plane.

A

The vertical antero-posterior plane passing longitudinally through the midlines of the head, neck and trunk.

**NOT synonymous with the term ‘midline’.

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3
Q

Define the coronal plane.

A

Vertical planes passing through the body at right angles (or perpendicular) to the median plane.

**Divides the body into anterior and posterior parts.

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4
Q

Define the saggital plane.

A

Vertical planes passing through the body running parallel to the median plane.

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5
Q

Define the transverse plane.

A

Horizontal planes passing through the body at right angles to the medial and frontal planes.

*Divide the body into superior and inferior parts.

**Referred to as transaxial or axial by radiologists.

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6
Q

What is the main use of anatomical planes?

A

To describe sections.

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7
Q

What percentage of newborns show one or more significant birth defect?

A

3%

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8
Q

Give 5 functions of the skin.

A

-Protection of the body from the environment
-Containment of the body’s structures
-Thermal regulation
-Sensation
-Synthesis and storage of vitamin D

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9
Q

What are the 2 main layers of the skin?

A

Epidermis –> superficial cellular layer
Dermis –> deep connective tissue layer

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10
Q

What type of cells make up the epidermis?

A

Squamous keratinised cells

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11
Q

How is the epidermis nourished?

A

By the underlying, vascularised dermis

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12
Q

How does the dermis receive vascular supply?

A

Arteries enter the deep surface to forma cutaneous plexus of anastomosing arteries.

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13
Q

What is the dermis composed of?

A

Dense layer containing interlacing elastin and collagen fibres.

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14
Q

Within the skin, where are most nerve terminals (endings) found?

A

Dermis

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15
Q

What determines tension and wrinkle lines in the skin?

A

The predominant pattern of collagen fibres.

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16
Q

How do tension lines run in the skin of the limbs?

A

Spiral longitudinally.

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17
Q

How do tension lines run in the skin of the neck and trunk?

A

Run transversely.

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18
Q

How do tension lines in the skin of the elbows, knees, ankles and wrists run?

A

Run parallel to the transverse creases.

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19
Q

Hair follicles are found in which layer of the skin?

A

Dermis

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20
Q

Give the 4 main layers of the skin.

A

Epidermis
Dermis
Subcutaneous tissue
Deep fascia

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21
Q

List the structures contained wtihin the dermis of the skin.

A

Hair follicles
Arrector muscles
Sebaceous glands

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22
Q

List the structures contained within the subcutaneous tissue of the skin.

A

Loose connective tissue
Stored fat
Sweat glands
Superficial blood vessels
Lymphatic vessels
Cutaneous nerves
Arterioles

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23
Q

What is the function of skin ligaments?

A

Attach the deep surface of the dermis to underlying deep fascia.

**E.G. Retinacula cutis

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24
Q

What do the ligaments of the skin form in the breasts?

A

Weight-bearing suspensory ligaments

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25
What happens to lacerations and incisions that run parallel to tension lines?
They heal well with little scarring as there is limited disruption of the collagen fibres.
26
What underlies subcutaneous tissue almost everywhere?
Deep fascia
27
Describe the deep fascia.
A dense, organised connective tissue layer devoid of fat which covers most of the body parallel and deep to the subcutaneous tissue.
28
Extensions from the inner surface of the deep fascia can form what?
Epimysium - where it joins to deeper muscles Investing fascia - where it surrounds neurovascular bundles
29
In the limbs, groups of muscles with similar functions that share the same nerve supply are located in what?
Fascial compartments **which are separated by intramuscular septa
30
What happens when deep fascia comes into contact with bones?
It blends with the periosteum (deep fascia NEVER passes freely over bone)
31
What happens to the deep fascia at the wrists and ankles?
It becomes thickened, forming a retinaculum to hold tendons in place where they cross the joint during flexion and extension
32
Describe subserous fascia.
Lies between the internal surface of musculoskeletal walls and the serous membranes lining the body cavities. E.G endothoracic, endoabdominal, endopelvic fascias
33
What are bursae?
Sacs or envelopes of serous membrane. **Serous membrane = delicate connective tissue membrane capable of secreting fluid to lubrication a smooth internal surface
34
When do bursae become abnormal and pathological?
When they become realised spaces instead of potential spaces **i.e. when the wall is interrupted or when fluid is secreted or formed within them in excess
35
36
What do burase allow?
One structure to move more freely over another.
37
What are synovial tendon sheaths?
Specialised, elongated bursae which wrap around tendons and enclose them as they traverse osseofibrous tunnels. **Osseofibrous tunnels anchor tendons in place.
38
What forms the axial skeleton?
Bones of the head, neck and trunk
39
What forms the appendicular skeleton?
Bones of the limbs, including the pectoral and pelvic girdles
40
Describe cartilage.
Resilient, semirigid form of connective tissue that forms parts of the skeleton where most flexibility is required.
41
Articulating surfaces of bones participating in a synovial joint are capped with with?
Articular cartilage
42
How do the cells of cartilage obtain oxygen and nutrients?
Diffusion (as they are avascular)
43
Describe bone.
A living tissue which is highly specialised and a hard form of connective tissue.
44
Give 5 functions of bones in the adult skeleton.
Support for the body and its vital cavities. Protection for vital structures. Mechanical basis for movement. Storage for salts. A continuous supply of new blood cells.
45
Describe periosteum.
Fibrous connective tissue covering the surrounds of each skeletal element (except where articular cartilage occurs.
46
What is the difference between periosteum and perichondrium?
Periosteum is connective tissue surrounding bones, perichondrium is connective tissue surrounding cartilage.
47
What are the functions of periosteum and perichondrium?
Nourish external aspects of the skeleton AND Can lay down more cartilage or bone AND Provide the interface for attachment of tendons and ligaments.
48
What are the 2 types of bone?
Compact Spongy (trabecular)
49
Describe the basic structure of bone.
Superficial layer of thin compact bone surrounding a central mass of spongy bone (sometimes the spongy bone is replaced by a marrow (medullary) cavity.
50
Name the 2 types of bone marrow.
Yellow (fatty) Red (blood cell and platelet forming)
51
Name the 5 types of bones.
Long bones Short bones Flat bones Irregular bones Sesamoid bones
52
Which bones contain red bone marrow throughout life?
Ribs Sternum Vertebrae Skull bones
53
What is yellow bone marrow?
Atrophied red bone marrow with no power of haematopoiesis
54
When does the humerus begin to ossify and when does ossification become complete?
Begins at week 8 of the embryonic period. Is complete at age 20.
55
All bones are derived from where?
Mesenchyme (embryonic connective tissue).
56
Describe the 2 different types of ossification.
Intramembranous = bone derived directly from mesenchyme = bone starts to form in foetal period Endochondral = bones derived from cartilage derived from mesenchyme = cartilage is formed in the foetal period and later replaced by bone
57
How many ossification centres are there in the scapula?
7
58
Give 3 examples of bones that undergo intramembranous ossification.
Clavicle Skull bones Facial bones
59
Give an example of a bone type that undergoes endochondral ossification.
Long bones.
60
Which is the first long bone to begin ossification?
Clavicle at 5-6 weeks foetal age **It is also the last long bone to finish ossifying (between 25 and 31 years old)
61
Which structures initiate the primary ossification centre?
Capillaries
62
The shaft of bone ossified from the primary ossification centre of a long bone is called what?
Diaphysis
63
Which parts of a long bone are ossified from secondary ossification centres?
Epiphyses
64
What is a metaphysis?
The flared part of the diaphysis nearest the epiphysis.
65
During growth of a long bone, what is present between the diaphysis and epiphysis?
Epiphysial plates (cartilaginous)
66
What is the only short bone in the body to develop a secondary ossification centre?
Calcaneus
67
What are the main blood vessels of bone?
Nutrient arteries *pass obliquely into bone as branches of adjacent arteries outside the periosteum
68
How do nutrient arteries pass into and through bone?
Nutrietn foramina.
69
How does blood reach osteocytes in compact bone?
Haversian systems OR Osteons
70
Name the 3 types of cartilage.
Hyaline cartilage Elastic cartilage Fibrocartilage
71
What is hyaline cartilage made from?
Type II collagen Aggrecan
72
What cell types are foundin hyaline cartilage?
Chondrocytes Chondroblasts
73
Is hyaline cartilage present in perichondrium?
Yes
74
Where is hyaline cartilage found?
Epiphyseal plates long bones Foetal skeleton Articular ends of long bones Upper respiratory tract Nasal bones Costal cartilages
75
What is the function of hyaline cartilage?
Joint articulation Scaffold for osteogenesis
76
What is fibrocartilage?
White fibrous tissue with small islands of cartilage cells
77
Where is fibrocartilage found?
IV discs Labrum of shoulder Menisci of knees Symphysis pubis TMJ
78
Describe the blood supply pf fibrocartilage.
Sparse
79
What is fibrocartilage composed of?
Type I and II collagen
80
Which cells are found in fibrocartilage?
Fibrochondroblasts
81
Is fibrocartilage present in the perichondrium?
No
82
Which 2 types of cartilage calcify and can sometimes ossify?
Hyaline cartilage Fibrocartilage
83
What is elastic collagen composed of?
Type II collagen Aggrecan Dark elastic fibres
84
Which cells are found in elastic cartilage?
Chondrocytes Chondroblasts
85
Is elastic cartilage present in the perichondrium?
Yes
86
What does elastic cartilage contain in large numbers?
Large number of yellow elastic fibres
87
Where can elastic cartilage be found?
External ear Eustachian tubes Epiglottis Auditory tube Laryngeal cartilage
88
Which type of cartilage never calcifies?
Elastic cartilage
89
What is the blood supply like to elastic cartilage?
No blood supply
90
What are the 3 classes of joints?
Synovial Fibrous Cartilaginous
91
Describe the structure of synovial joints.
-Articulating bones united by an articular (joint) capsule -Capsule composed of outer fibrous layer lined by a synovial membrane
92
What does the synovial membrane in synovial joints do?
Secretes synovial fluid to lubricate the joint.
93
The articulating bones of fibrous joints are united by what?
Fibrous tissue
94
The amount of movement at a fibrous joint depends on what?
The length of the fibres uniting the articulating bones
95
Give an example of a fibrous joint.
Sutures of the cranium
96
What is a syndesmosis type fo fibrous joint?
A joint which unites bones with a sheet of fibrous tissue (ligament or fibrous membrane) = partially moveable.
97
Give an example of a syndesmosis type fibrous joint.
Interosseous membrane in the forearm.
98
Articulating surfaces of cartilaginous joints are united by what?
Hyaline cartilage OR Fibrocartilage
99
Describe a primary cartilaginous joint.
SYNCHONDROSES Bones united by hyaline cartilage which permits slight bending during early life E.G. Joint between bony epiphysis and shaft --> permit growth in the length of a bone.
100
Describe secondary cartilaginous joints.
SYMPHYSES Strong, slightly moveable joints united by fibrocartilage. E.G. IV discs --> provide strength and shock absorption as well as flexibility.
101
What is the most common type of joint?
Synovial
102
Synovial joints are usually reinforced by what?
Accessory ligaments **Can be extrinsic or intrinsic
103
Name the 6 types of synovial joint.
Plane Hinge Saddle Condyloid Ball and socket Pivot
104
Example of a plane joint?
Acromioclavicular joint (Between acromion of scapula and clavicle)
105
Example of a hinge joint?
Elbow joint
106
Example of a ball and socket joint?
Hip Shoulder
107
Example of a saddle joint?
Base of the thumb (first MCPJ)
108
Example of a pivot joint?
Median atlanto-axial joint
109
Example of a condyloid joint?
MCP joints Condyloid joints
110
What do plane joints do?
Permit gliding or sliding movements in the plane of the articular surface.
111
Movement in plane joints is limited by what?
Their tight joint capsules
112
What do hinge joints do?
Permit flexion and extension ONLY. Uniaxial joints.
113
Describe the joint capsule of hinge joints.
Thin and lax anteriorly and posteriorly. Joined by strong, laterally placed collateral ligaments.
114
What do saddle joints do?
Permit abduction and adduction, flexion and extension. Allow movements around two axes at right angles to each other. Biaxial joint. Circumduction is also possible.
115
What do condyloid joints permit?
Flexion and extension Abduction and adduction Biaxial joints **Movement in one plane is normally greater than the other (normally sagittal plane) ***Circumduction also possible but more restricted
116
What do ball and socket joints permit?
Movement in multiple axes and planes: Flexion and extension Abduction and adduction Medial and lateral rotation Circumduction Multiaxial joints
117
What do pivot joints permit?
Rotation around a central axis Uniaxial
118
Joints receive blood from where?
Articular arteries **Arise from vessels around the joint
119
What do articular arteries normally do?
Anatamose to form networks to ensure a good blood supply to and across the joint **Form peri-articular arterial anastamoses
120
Where are articular veins normally located?
Joint capsule (usually synovial membrane) Found with arteries in this location
121
Where are sensory nerve endings found in joints?
Within the joint capsule
122
What does Hilton's law suggest?
That nerves supplying a joint also supply the muscles working to move that joint and the skin covering their distal attachments.
123
Where are pain fibres of joints normally found?
Fibrous layer of joint capsule and accessory ligaments.
124
Give an example of a modified hinge joint.
Knee.
125
Name the 3 muscle types.
Smooth muscle Cardiac muscle Skeletal muscle
126
Name the 3 different types of muscle.
Skeletal striated muscle Cardiac striated muscle Smooth muscle
127
Describe skeletal striated muscle.
Voluntary somatic muscle Makes up gross skeletal muscles Forms the muscular system Move or stabilise bones and other structures
128
Describe cardiac striated muscle.
Involuntary visceral muscle Forms most of the walls of the heart and adjacent parts of the great vessels
129
Describe smooth muscle.
Unstriated muscle Involuntary visceral muscle Forms parts of the walls of most vessels and hollow organs Moves substances through vessels and organs through contraction
130
Where is skeletal striated muscle found?
Large named muscles Attached to skeleton and fascia of limbs, body wall and head and neck
131
Where is cardiac striated muscle found?
Muscle of the heart (myocardium) and adjacent great vessels.
132
Where is smooth muscle found?
Walls of hollow viscera and blood vessels Iris and ciliary body Attached to hair follicles of the skin
133
What does skeletal striated muscle look like?
Large, long, unbranched cylindrical fibres Transverse striations arranged in parallel bundles Multiple, peripherally located nuclei
134
What does cardiac striated muscle look like?
Branching and anastamosing shorter fibres Transverse striations running parallel and connected end to end by intercalated discs Single central nucleus
135
What does smooth muscle look like?
Single or agglomerated small, spindle-shaped fibres No striations Single, central nucleus
136
What is the nervous stimulation for skeletal striated muscle?
Voluntary (reflexive) by somatic nervous system
137
What is the nervous stimulation for cardiac striated muscle?
Involuntary Intrinsically stimulated and propagated Rate and strength of contraction modified by ANS
138
What is the nervous stimulation for smooth muscle?
Involuntary by autonomic or enteric nervous system
139
What are tendons?
Organised collagen bundles connecting muscles to bone
140
Give the 7 types of classifications of muscle.
Flat (parallel) Pennate Fusiform Convergent Quadrate Circular (sphincteral) Multiheaded (or multibellied)
141
Describe flat (parallel) muscles.
Fibres fun parallel to the line of pull of the muscles often with an aponeurosis. Examples: External obliques Sartorious
142
Describe pennate muscles.
Feather-like due to the arrangement of their fascicles. Examples: Extensor digitorum longus = unipennate Rectus femoris = bipennate Deltoid = multipennate
143
Describe fusiform muscles.
Spindle shaped with a round thick belly and tapered ends. Examples: Biceps brachii
144
Describe convergent muscles.
Arise from a broad area and converge to form a single tendon. Example = pectoralis major
145
Describe quadrate muscles.
Have 4 equal sides. Example = rectus abdominis (between its tendinous intersections)
146
Describe circular (sphincteral) muscles.
Surround a body opening or orifice, constricting it when contracted. Example = ocularis oculi (closes eyelids)
147
Describe multiheaded (multibellied) muscles.
Have more than one head of attachment or more than one contractile belly. Examples: Biceps - 2 head Triceps - 3 heads Digastric - 2 bellies Gastrocnemius - 2 bellies
148
What is a prime mover?
When contraction of a muscle produces a desired movement. E.G Biceps contracts to flex elbow
149
What is an antagonist?
A muscle producing the opposite of a desired movement. E.G Triceps is antagonist to elbow flexion
150
What is a fixator?
Stabilises one attachment of a muscle so that the other end may move E.G. muscles that hold the scapula steady as the deltoid moves the humerus
151
What is a synergist?
Prevents unwanted movement E.G. Extensors of the wrist act as synergists to stabilise the wrist so the finger flexors act only on the fingers
152
What are muscle spindles?
Groups of up to 10 specialised muscle cells embedded along the normal skeletal muscle cells that act as sensory receptors. **Efferent fibres to intrafusal fibres are of the A - gamma type.
153
Which cranial nerves supply the ocular and facial muscles?
III, IV, VI, VII (Contain NO sensory fibres)
154
What forms the CNS?
Brain and spinal cord
155
What forms the PNS?
Nervous system: Cranial nerves Spinal nerves Associated ganglia
156
What are the somatic components of the CNS and PNS?
Efferent pathways innervating skeletal muscle Afferent pathways transmitting sensory information
157
What do the autonomic parts of the CNS and PNS do?
Control cardiac muscle, smooth muscle and glands
158
What are glial cells?
Non-neuronal, non-excitable support cells
159
What do Schwann cells produce?
Myelin
160
Give examples of glial cells.
Astrocytes Oligodendrocytes Microglia Neurolemma Schwann cells
161
Spinal nerves are formed by the union of what?
Anterior (ventral) roots and posterior (dorsal) root
162
The anterior roots of the spinal cord contain what?
Motor (efferent) fibres for skeletal muscle.
163
The posterior (dorsal) roots of the spinal cord contain what?
Sensory afferent fibres.
164
Where are the cell bodies of the afferent fibres of the posterior root of the spinal cord found?
Posterior root ganglion (no synapses)
165
Which nerve roots of the anterior roots of spinal nerves also contain autonomic fibres?
T1-L1 S2-S4
ACEM primary - anatomy
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