1
Q
what are the two main pieces of information we study about neurobiology?
A
disease or cognition
2
Q
how is knowledge built?
A
Knowledge is built up systematically through
interactions of the mind with the world
3
Q
what is the key concept of Mind/Body Dualism?
A
Mind is non-physical
-Brain may control movement
-Mind and consciousness exist in a non-physical world
- Body is determined by the physical world, mind is not
4
Q
what is the Cartesian Theater?
A
The old idea that there’s a single central place in the brain where everything comes together for a “viewer” (like a little person watching a movie in your head).
5
Q
what two facts make up the nervous system?
A
It is fast and electrochemically active, nothing more complicated in the universe.
6
Q
what is key to brain formation?
A
They are not encoded like computers, they evolved overtime
7
Q
What is the only biological function that doesn’t require movement?
A
sweating
8
Q
The brain moves the body co-ordinately through what?
A
Through a combination of motor planning, integration, and feedback control,
9
Q
behaviours have what?
A
Some kind of function
10
Q
what is the two types of behavour?
A
Innate Behaviour and learned.
11
Q
what were Tinbergen’s four questions?
A
- Causation (stimulus AND mechanism)
- Survival Value (adaptive function)
- Ontogeny (how it is built in development)
- Phylogeny (evolutionary history
12
Q
Innate behaviour
A
Present in all members of a given species
Develops independently of environmental
context
Often present at birth
Almost always long-lasting
-Slightly modifiable
13
Q
learned behaviour?
A
Modification of a behaviour with experience
Can be short or long-lasting
Highly modifiable
Different for each
individual
14
Q
what are Central Pattern Generationers?
A
Central pattern generators (CPGs) are
biological neural circuits that produce
rhythmic outputs in the absence of
rhythmic input
15
Q
how many interacting
components are needed for Central pattern generators
A
CPGs have at least two interacting
components to allow rhythmic activity
16
Q
give examples of Central pattern generators
A
Breathing
Chewing
Swallowing
Swimming
Escape reflex
17
Q
what is a fixed action pattern?
A
is a sequence of unlearned acts directly linked to a simple stimulus , requiring an external sign stimulus. Fixed action patterns are unchangeable and, once initiated, usually carried to completion
18
Q
what is important for a instinct?
A
It tells us about the world but not how to react
19
Q
what does early exposure to a stimulus cause?
A
imprinting - is the establishment of a long-
lasting behavioral response to a particular
individual or object
20
Q
when can imprinting occour?
A
Imprinting can only take place during a
specific time in development called the
sensitive period
21
Q
How long is the sensitive period for gulls?
A
lasts one to two days
22
Q
what is an example of learned behaviour?
A
Spatial Maps
23
Q
What is Spatial learning and who demonstrated this?
A
is the establishment of a memory
that reflects the environment’s spatial structure
- Tinbergen showed how digger wasps use
landmarks to find nest entrances
24
Q
what is a cognitive map?
A
is an internal representation of
spatial relationships between objects in an animal’s
surroundings
25
what is an example of associative learning?
A blue jay will avoid eating monarchs and
similar-looking butterflies after an experience with a
distasteful monarch butterfly and Pavlovian (classical) Conditioning
26
what is Operant conditioning or trial and error learning?
Is a type of associative
learning in which an animal learns to
associate one of its behaviours with a reward
or punishment
27
what is the monkey example of learned behaviour?
Monkeys imitate sweet potato washing once
they observe it
28
what is Cognition?
is a process of knowing that involves awareness,
reasoning, recollection, and judgment
29
what was the abstract thinking of the honey bees?
oneybees can distinguish “same” from “different” and
distinguish between human faces
30
31
Some bird species, particularly corvids, demonstrate complex
problem solving? like what
For example, ravens can obtain food suspended by a string by pulling up
the string
32
worker bees cognition ?
Bees innate communicate angle and distance to food sources
-Distance as number of waggles
Angle from sun as
direction
33
What was the influence of cross fostering on mice?
Pups from one mouse strain are raised by mothers of another strain
This separates genetic (innate) influences from environmental (rearing) influences
The expression of behaviour is strongly shaped by environment
Levels of anxiety, aggression, stress responses, social behaviour
34
what is neurobiology?
The study of Behaviour and Biology
35
Do genes dominate behaviour?
No! Genes influence behaviour indirectly, through multiple biological levels. Genes encode proteins, not behaviours. There is no single “gene for” a behaviour
36
what did Camillo Golgi do?
Developed Golgi staining method, Randomly stains a small number of neurons in their entirety
Revealed the full structure of neurons (cell body, dendrites, axon)
37
What is the ‘reticular’ theory
The brain is a single, continuous network (a reticulum) of interconnected nerve fibres, rather than being made of individual, separate cells
( Neurons are not independent cells
All nerve fibres are fused together into one continuous mesh
Signals spread through this network without discrete synapses)
38
what did Santiago Ramón y Cajal do?
Used Golgi’s method for details anatomical analysis
Discovered nerve cell growth cone
Developed ‘neuron’ theory for brain anatomy
39
What is the developed neuron theory?
The nervous system is made up of individual, discrete cells called neurons, not a continuous network.
40
Where is the neuron found?
Most of a neuron’s organelles are in the cell body
41
what are dendrites?
Highly branched extensions that
receive signals from other neurons
42
what is the axon?
Is typically a much longer extension that transmits signals to
other cells at synapses
43
what is the cone-shaped base of an axon called?
Axon hillock
44
Give examples of the postsynaptic cell?
A neuron, muscle, or gland cell
45
what are Glial Cells?
Most neurons are nourished or insulated by
cells called glia, or glial cells.
46
neural control of a simple reflex circuit, classically studied in Aplysia (sea slug) neurobiology. what is the two processes ?
Touching the siphon activates sensory neurons
this then leads to Sensory integration
Then the Proboscis (effector / behaviour)
Muscles contract, producing a withdrawal or movement response
47
The neurons of the PNS, when bundled
together, form what?
Nerves
48
Dendritic Structure?
Highly branched processes extending from the cell body
Increase surface area for synaptic contacts
Contain dendritic spines (in many neurons), where most excitatory synapses occur
49
what is the membrane potential?
voltage (difference in electrical charge)
across its plasma membrane of each cell
50
what is the resting potential?
The membrane potential of a neuron
not sending signals
51
Changes in membrane potential are called
Action potentials
52
what is the default membrane potential of each cell?
The concentration of K+ is higher inside the
cell, while the concentration of Na+ is higher outside the cell
53
What drives the gradient across the cell?
Sodium-potassium pumps (Using the energy of atp)
54
what do these gradients of ions represent?
Chemical potential
energy
55
what does the opening of the ion channels do?
Chemical potential to electrical potential
56
Resting neuron has what channels open?
A neuron at resting potential contains many open K+
channels and fewer open Na+ channels; K+ diffuses out of
the cell - The currents of K+ and Na+ are equal
and opposite, and the resting potential across the
membrane remains steady
57
what is the major source of membrane potential ?
The resulting build-up of negative charge within the neuron
58
what opens in response to a stimuli?
Gated ion
channels that open
59
what open or close in
response to a change in
voltage across the plasma
membrane of the neuron
Voltage-gated ion
channels
60
What is Patch-Clamp Recording?
Patch-clamp recording is an electrophysiological technique used to measure ionic currents through individual ion channels or across whole cell membranes.
Measures tiny electrical currents caused by ions (Na⁺, K⁺, Ca²⁺, Cl⁻) moving through channels (Electrical currents flowing through ion channels are recorded)
61
what is hyperpolarization?
When gated K+ channels open, K+ diffuses out,
making the inside of the cell more negative
62
what is the threshold?
The threshold is the minimum level of membrane depolarisation required to trigger an action potential.
Threshold ≈ –55 mV (varies by neuron)
63
what is depolarisation?
Occurs if gated Na+
channels open and Na+ diffuses into the cell ( A reduction in the magnitude of
the membrane potential)
64
Graded potentials
Are changes in polarization where the
magnitude of the change varies with the strength of the
stimulus
65
what is an action potential?
Massive change in membrane voltage
66
What are action potentials constant in?
Magnitude, are all-or-none,
and transmit signals over long distances
67
what is the Rising Phase?
Threshold is
crossed, and the membrane
potential increases
68
what is the falling phase?
Voltage-gated
Na+ channels become
inactivated; voltage-gated K+
channels open, and K+ flows
out of the cell
69
what is the undershot?
membrane
permeability to K+ is at first
higher than at rest, then
voltage-gated K+ channels
close and resting potential is
restored
Action Potential (where the membrane potential becomes more negative than the resting membrane potential)
70
where is action potential initiated?
Axon hillock
71
what is the directionality of the action potentials?
Only one direction:
toward the synaptic terminals
72
what prevents the backwards motion of the action potentials?
Inactivated Na+ channels behind the zone of
depolarization prevent the action potential from
traveling backwards
73
What is proportional to input signal strength?
The rate at which action potentials are
produced in a neuron is proportional to input
signal strength
74
what changes the speed of the action potential?
Axons diameter
75
what is the myelin sheath?
In vertebrates, axons are insulated by a myelin
sheath
76
what is the different positional names of the myelin sheath?
Myelin sheaths are made by glia—
oligodendrocytes in the CNS and Schwann cells
in the PNS
77
what is the restrictive level of the depolarisation zone?
Voltage-gated sodium channels are restricted to
nodes of Ranvier, gaps in the myelin sheath
78
what is saltatory conduction?
Is the rapid transmission of an action potential along a myelinated axon, where the electrical impulse “jumps” from one node of Ranvier to the next
79
the electrical signal form one neuron to the other is thorough what?
gap
junctions
80
Postsynaptic potentials fall into two
categories (2)
Excitatory postsynaptic potentials
(EPSPs)
and Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials
(IPSPs)
81
Excitatory postsynaptic potentials
(EPSPs)
Are depolarizations that bring
the membrane potential toward
threshold
82
Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials
(IPSPs)
are hyperpolarizations that
move the membrane potential farther
from threshold
83
what is Temporal or Spatial summation helps?
Temporal Summation: Same synapse fires repeatedly in a short time
Spatial Summation: Multiple synapses fire at the same time on different parts of the neuron
84
what does the summing of the EPSPs and
IPSP do?
Determines whether an axon
hillock will reach threshold and
generate an action potential
85
what does cocaine do?
Reuptake of dopamine, leading
to hyperdopaminergic activity
86
what does the nerve gas syrin do?
triggers paralysis and death
due to inhibition of the enzyme that breaks down
aceylcholine
87
The Gray matter in the brain?
grayish (due to lack of myelin)
It contains peices like:
Neuron cell bodies – processing centers
Dendrites – receiving signals
Glial cells – support and maintain neurons
Synapses – communication sites
88
what does white matter do?
Composition: Myelinated axons (mostly)- Connect different brain regions
Cortex ↔ cortex, cortex ↔ spinal cord, etc.
89
what do the Ventricles do?
The ventricles are cavities within the brain filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), and they have several important functions
90
what are the two known neuropeptides?
substance P and Met-enkephalin
91
what are the amino acids
Glutamate and Gaba as well as glycine
92
what are the amino acid neurotransmitters used for ?
GABA=Makes neurons less likely to fire
Glycine = Inhibitory neurotransmitter (especially spinal cord)
glutamate= excitatory - makes neurons fire
93
what is the gas of the brain and what does it do?
Nitric oxide,
Glutamate activates NMDA receptors.
Ca²⁺ enters the postsynaptic neuron.
Ca²⁺ activates neuronal NOS.
NO is produced.
NO diffuses back to the presynaptic neuron.
It increases neurotransmitter release.
So NO acts as a retrograde messenge
94
What part of the brain does nicotine effect?
stimulates dopamine releasing VTA neutron
95
what part of the brain does opioids effect?
decrease the activity of the inhiblatory neuron
96
what does cocaine and amphetamines do in the brain?
block the removal of dopamine form the synaptic cleft
97
What travels form the PNS TO THE CNS
Sensation leading to perception
98
when does processing of sensory information occur?
Processing of sensory
information can occur
before, during, and
after transmission of
action potentials to the
central nervous system
(CNS)
99
what are the most high yeild neuromuscular junction + excitation–contraction coupling
High-yield function: Releases acetylcholine (ACh) at the neuromuscular junction.
the T-tubule = Transverse Tubule- Carries action potential deep into muscle fiber, Muscle fibers are thick — surface depolarization alone isn’t enough.
Sarcoplasmic Reticulum: Stores Ca²⁺
Releases Ca²⁺ when stimulated
Reuptakes Ca²⁺ for relaxation
100
what is the site of contraction?
The myofibril, organised into sarcomeres
101
the sarcomere
THE functional contractile unit.
102
What are the tree types of taste preceptors?
GPCRs,TRP family and the sodium channel
103
What does the sodium channel taste?
The taste receptor for salt
104
what does the G-
protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) taste?
The sensations of sweet, umami, and bitter
105
what does the TRP family taste
sour (similar to capsaicin and other thermoreceptor proteins)
106
what is the experimental probe molecule that mice don't taste but humans can?
Phenyl-beta-D-glucopyranoside
(PBDG)
107
what nerves system do the cnidarians have?
Have interconnected neurons
arranged in nerve nets.
They do have neurons, but they do NOT have:
A brain
A spinal cord
Centralization (like in vertebrates)
108
what do Bilaterally symmetrical
animals exhibit?
Cephalization, the
clustering of sensory
organs at the front end
of the bod
109
what does the white matter consist of?
which consists of
bundles of myelinated axons
110
What is the difference between afferent and efferent nerves in relation to the PNS and the CNS .
In the PNS, afferent neurons transmit
information to the CNS, and efferent neurons transmit information away from the CNS
111
The motor system
Carries signals to skeletal
muscles and can be voluntary
112
The autonomic nervous system does what?
Regulates breathing, heart rate, urination, sexual arousal
113
What aspects does the enteric nervous system control?
Exerts direct
control over the digestive tract, pancreas, and gallbladder
114
What does the forebrain do?
Has activities including
processing of olfactory input, regulation of
sleep, learning, and any complex processing
115
What does the midbrain do?
Coordinates routing of sensory
input
116
What functions does the hindbrain do?
Controls involuntary activities
and coordinates motor activities
117
What development is described by ' Development Mirrors Evolution'
In vertebrate embryos:
Brainstem forms first ,Then midbrain,Then forebrain (cortex last)
This mirrors evolution:
Older structures:
Brainstem (basic survival functions)
Newer structures:
Cerebral cortex (higher cognition)
118
What does the hindbrain give rise to?
Cerebellum
119
what dies the forebrain divide into?
diencephelon
120
The diencephalon forms what?
Which forms endocrine tissues in the brain
121
What does the telencephalon form?
Cerebrum
122
what does the occipital lobe do?
This allows:
Left visual field → right brain
Right visual field → left brain
123
What does the Broca's area do?
Forming speech
124
What does the prefrontal cortex do?
Decision making,planning
125
what does the Wernicke area do?
Comprehending language
126
what does the parental lobe do?
Somatosensory cortex
(sense of touch)
Sensory association
cortex (integration of
sensory information)
Motor cortex (control of
skeletal muscles
127
What is in the temporal lobe?
Auditory cortex (hearing)
Wernicke’s area
(comprehending language)
Broca’s area
(forming speech)
128
what controls muscle contraction in the brain?
The cerebrum controls skeletal muscle
contraction (and also memory)
129
Cerebral cortex
Is vital for perception ,voluntary movement, and learning
130
What does the corpus
callosum do?
Enables the right and left
cerebral cortices to communicate
131
what is used for the balancing?
Cerebellum
132
What is the hypothalamus known for?
Constitutes a control
center that includes the body’s thermostat
and central biological clock
133
what is the brain stem made up of ?
midbrain, the pons, and the medulla
oblongata (or medulla)
134
What is the major function of the pons and the medulla?
Is to transfer information
between the PNS and the midbrain and
forebrain
135
what elese does the medulla do?
Control of
several automatic functions such as
breathing, heart and blood vessel
activity, swallowing, vomiting, and
digestion
136
What part of the brain is the emotional centre?
Amygdala
137
What is the limbic system used for?
Generation and experience of
emotions ( including the amygdala,
hippocampus, and parts of the
thalamus)
138
what was the deal with Phineas Gage?
The rod shot throught his brain
Before: responsible, calm, respected leader.
After: impulsive, rude, unreliable, socially inappropriate
The rod damaged orbitofrontal cortex
and amygdala
139
what happened with Brenda Milner
Henry Molaison?
The hippocampus is critical for forming new long-term memories.
Memory is not a single system.
There are different types of memory stored in different brain areas.
they removed : Both medial temporal lobes
Including most of both hippocampi.
But he developed profound anterograde amnesia.
Could not form new long-term memories, short term memory's intact
140
In Wilder Penfield & Memory Stimulation what percentage of people observed vivid recap of episodic memory upon temporal lobe stimulation ?
5-8%
141
what is episodic memory
Is a type of long-term memory for personally experienced events
142
Eleanor Maguire proved what?
Eleanor Maguire is a British neuroscientist best known for showing that the hippocampus can change structurally with experience.
(neuroplasticity in adult humans.)
Taxi drivers had a larger posterior hippocampus, size was related to years of driving experience
143
What is neuroplasticity?
Describes the
ability of the nervous system to be
modified after birth
144
What does Synaptic plasticity mean?
Strengthening or weakening of synaptic
junctions
145
what is long-term
potentiation?
Is a long-lasting increase in synaptic strength that occurs after repeated stimulation of a synapse
146
what does is long-term potentiation involve?
LTP involves a presynaptic neuron that
releases the neurotransmitter glutamate.
- LTP involves two types of glutamate
receptors on the receiving cell.
147
what happens during AMPA?
1.Strong stimulation activates NMDA receptors
2.Ca²⁺ enters the postsynaptic neuron
3.Signaling pathways (e.g., CaMKII) are activated
4.Stored AMPA receptors are inserted into the postsynaptic membrane
5.The synapse now has more AMPA receptors
148
what is a Stored
AMPA
receptor
A stored AMPA receptor refers to an AMPA-type glutamate receptor that is kept inside the neuron (not yet inserted into the synaptic membrane) and can be rapidly added to the synapse during plasticity — especially during long-term potentiation (LTP).
149
what did agents that disrupted LTP do?
Agents that disrupt LTP seem to disrupt
memory
150
what was Karl Lashley's experiement?
“In Search of the Engram”
An engram = the physical trace of a memory in the brain.
The amount of cortex removed mattered more than where it was removed
151
Daniel Schacter
That memory is : Reconstructive
Adaptive
Future-oriented
152
From cells to organisms
flashcards
Decks in class (27)
# Cards
-
Colm Cunningham - cell to cell communication78
-
signal transduction88
-
environmental chemistry11
-
Developmental biology143
-
All the reaction formulas for env15
-
human physiology142
-
Endocrine regulation of physiological function131
-
colm Cunningham immune37
-
Dr kellys digestion58
-
The senses71
-
memory48
-
the bacteria types41
-
thermodymamics48
-
Structures86
-
learning the reactions rates20
-
biology and examples of bacteria21
-
kinetics10
-
analytical chemistry11
-
the Basis of toxicity4
-
silicates5
-
bus flashacrds13
-
Organisms to Ecosystems192
-
Aine kelly104
-
Tomas Ryan152
-
The study flashcards for Biology24
-
QSAR Analysis6
-
For Gunko reaction schemes1
