1
Q
Define the term memory.
A
The capacity to retain and retrieve information.
2
Q
Give 4 key assumptions of cognitive psychology.
A
- Thoughts influence behaviour.
- Humans are information processors.
- The mind operates in a similar way to a computer.
- Internal mental processes can and should be investigated scientifically.
3
Q
Explain what is meant by declarative memory.
A
Memory of facts and events (“knowing what”).
4
Q
Explain what is meant by procedural memory or non-declarative memory.
A
The unconscious memory of skills and how to do things.
(“knowing how”).
5
Q
Describe the case of H.M.
Case study of H.M.
A
H.M. was born in 1926.
At age 7, he was knocked down by a bicycle and began to have epilepitc sueiqures which worsened over time. He then had a lobotomy to correct it but his memory was impaired as result.
6
Q
Give the aim of the case study of H.M.
Case study of H.M.
A
To find out the effects of H.M’s brain surgery (removal of 2/3 of hippocampus) on his functioning in particular memory.
7
Q
What type of surgery did William Scoville perform on H.M. and why?
Case study of H.M.
A
Experimental brain surgery removing the medial temporal lobe and the hippocampus as he thought it would stop the seizures.
8
Q
What was the result of H.M’s operation (lobotomy
Case study of H.M.
A
H.M. suffered from anterograde and retrograde amnesia, and was not able to create new memories.
9
Q
What does H.M. case study provide evidence for?
Case study of H.M.
A
The idea of there being 2 types of memory STM and LTM
10
Q
Explain why the case study of H.M. has low generalisabilty?
Case study of H.M.
A
- Done on one participant (H.M.) who was highly unique. He had epiliepsy so his brain structure may have been different to a typical brain.
- Therefore, the findings about memory may not generalise to a target population.
11
Q
Explain why the case study of H.M. has low reliability?
Case study of H.M.
A
- This case study cannot be replicated as H.M. was studied over a long period of time (51 years).
- Much of the data gathered was qualitative, from observations and interviews.
12
Q
What are the applications of the case study of H.M?
Case study of H.M.
A
- One of the first studies to show that there are distinct memory functions —> good springboard for future research.
- Allows us to understand how memory is localised in the brain —> can help psychologists to develop strategies to help people with memory loss/ brain injury.
13
Q
Explain the validity of the case study of H.M.
Case study of H.M.
A
- High validity as H.M was studied through a variety of methods therefore, giving a rich, detailed understanding of his memory issues.
- Low validity as because it is a case study there is no control of extraneous variables.
- Low ecological validity concerning studies done in hospital and those involving artificial taks but high eco validity due to studies done at home as the environment is familiar.
14
Q
Describe why the case study of H.M. is unethical.
Case study of H.M.
A
- H.M. didn’t have functioning memory so could not give informed consent for any of the tests performed on him.
- He never gave permission for his brain being preserved, nor were any of his closest relatives approached.
15
Q
Describe the qualitative process/ the steps used in the qualitative process.
A
- A research question is created.
- Data is collected in the form of interviews, questionnaires, speech analysis etc.
- Data is transcribed/ written up.
- Look for themes and ideas.
- Reach conclusions based on themes and answer research question.
- Explain and justify conclusion using evidence from analysis.
16
Q
Who created The Multi Store Model?
MSM
A
Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968)
17
Q
What are the 3 components in The Multi Store Model?
MSM
A
- Sensory Memory
- Short-term Memory
- Long-term Memory
18
Q
Describe the Sensory Memory
MSM
A
- Info arrives from 5 senses - by intaking its environment
- Large capacity
- Encoded visually and ecoustically
- Short duration (less than a second) - info immediately lost
19
Q
How is information forgotten from sensory register?
A
If no attention is paid to it
20
Q
Describe the Short Term Memory
MSM
A
- Encoding: acoustically encoded.
- Retrieval: rapid Sequential Scan of stored info.
- Rehearsal maintains info in the STM (strengthens memory trace).
- More info enters, old info (with a weak memory trace) decays.
- Info has to be attended to enter
- Duration is 15-30 seconds & then decays (if not rehearsed)
- 7+/-2 chunks capacity
21
Q
How is information forgotten from the short term memory?
A
No maintenance rehearsal or displacement
22
Q
Describe the Long Term Memory?
MSM
A
- Encoding: if info is linked to prior knowledge, easier to search for.
- Encoded semantically.
- If you understand info, more likely to remember
- Unlimited capacity & duration
- Info recalled from LTM to STM when needed
- Retrieval: not stored as one memory trace but multiple copies.
23
Q
How is information forgotten from long term memory?
A
decay or interference
24
Q
What is evidence for Short Term Memory?
MSM
A
Peterson & peterson (1959):
- Recall a trigram with an interference task
- Performance dropped after 15-18 sec - info decays rapidly if not rehearsed
25
What is evidence for Long Term Memory?
| MSM
Bahrick et al (1975):
- Memory test using face & names in school yearbook
- 15 years after leaving school: 90% face & age recalled
- 48 years: 70-80% recall
26
What is a strength of the multi store model (PEE)?
clive wearing
A strength of the multi store model of memory is the supporting evidence from Clive Wearing who had anterograde and retrograde amnesia. This meant he was unable to form new long term memories although he could engage in conversation for a few seconds before forgetting, which shows that his STM was still intact to an extent. Therefore, this supports the model because it suggests that STM and LTM have separate stores and the linear transfer from STM is essential in creating long term memories.
27
What is a strength of the multi store model (PEE)?
peterson and peterson
A strength of the multi store model is the supporting evidence from Peterson and Petrson. They used nonsense trigrams to investigate the duration of short term memory and found that after 3 seconds, 80% were recalled but after 18 seconds, 10% were recalled. Therefore, this supports the model because it aligns with the limited duration of STM and the existence of maintenance rehearsal at 3 seconds followed by the process of decay.
28
what is a weakness for the multi store model (PEE)?
peterson and peterson
however, in peterson and peterson’s study, nonsense trigrams were used to reflect short term memory. this artificial task lacks mundane realism because recalling nonsense trigrams is very different to everyday tasks in the real world. therefore, it lacks task validity and the fact that the trigrams were nonsense suggests that the decay could be due to confusion rather than memory processes.
29
what is a weakness of the multi store model? (PEE)
simplistic
a weakness of the multi store model is that it is considered to be reductionist. it reduces memory down to 3 components and lacks detail on the complex functions. for example, the description of transfer from STM to LTM only being due to ‘maintenance rehearsal.’ additionally, it does not account for formation of LTM without rehearsal, such as remembering what you ate for dinner on your birthday, even though you did not rehearse this. therefore, it has simplified a much more complex process which reduces the credibility and makes it an incomplete explanation.
30
what are the applications of the multi store model? (PEE)
a strength of the multi store model is that it has practical applications. for example, the model emphasises the importance of maintenance rehearsal when transferring STM into LTM. therefore, this would benefit students in terms of their revision as they should continuously go over and practise content in order to sufficiently memorise information for an exam.
31
how does clive wearing’s case challenge the multi store model? (PEE)
the case of clive wearing can criticise the multi store model. for example, his long term memory for facts was particularly damaged, however he could remember how to walk, talk and play the piano. therefore, this suggests that LTM is not one unitary store, making the model a weak explanation which has oversimplified a much more complex system.
32
Who created the Working Memory Model?
| WMM
Baddeley & Hitch (1974)
33
What are the components in the Working Memory Model?
| WMM
- Central Executive
- Phonological Loop
- Visuospatial Sketchpad
- Episodic Buffer (added later)
34
Describe the Central Executive?
| WMM
Decides what information to pay attention to and what no to and allocates tasks to the appropriate slave system.
It also deals with cognitive tasks e.g. problem solving.
It relates all the information to LTM.
Limited Capacity
35
Describe the Phonological Loop?
| WMM
Temporarily stores and processes spoken and written info.
Split into 2 subsystems:
Phonological Store (inner ear):
- Holds limited verbal info for a few seconds - decays rapidly - can be extended using articulatory rehearsal system.
Articulatory Rehearsal System (inner voice):
- Rehearses & stores verbal info from the phonological store
36
Describe the Visuospatial Sketchpad?
| WMM
Stores and processes visual and spatial info. Used for navigation.
37
Describe the episodic buffer
recalls and integrates info from STM to LTM
manipulates information
38
what is a strength of the working memory model (PEE)?
KF
a strength of the working memory model is the supporting evidence from patient KF. after a motorcycle accident, he lost the ability to form verbal memories but could still form visual memories. for example, he had a digit span of 1 which suggests that the phonological store was damaged. therefore, this suggests that short term memory has separate stores which strengthens the concept of the working memory in comparison to the multi store model.
39
What is a weakness of the working memory model (PEE)?
KF
a weakness of the working memory model is that in patient KF’s study, there is low reliability. for example, case studies use complex procedures with unique brain damaged participants who have memory impairments. therefore, they cannot be accurately and ethically replicated as it would not be morally correct to reproduce and data would be difficult to compare as every participant has a different, complicated situation.
40
what are the applications of the working memory model?
a strength of the working memory model is the practical applications. for example, it explains that impairment in the phonological loop makes it difficult to remember a sequence that can be read aloud. therefore, it has implications for people with dyslexia who may need extra support or time in exams to compensate for this.
41
Describe Tulving's Long Term theory of memory
* Semantic memory: general knowledge and facts: origin of forming the memory not recalled + no personal or temporal link. Memories encoded acoustically
* Episodic memory: events that we experience, personal / temporal links
42
what is a strength & weakness of Tulving’s LTM theory in terms of validity and reliability? (PEE)
a strength of Tulving’s LTM theory is that the research is based off case studies. this means that it studies participants in their natural environment so reflects memory in real life. therefore, this increases the validity. however, due to being case studies which investigate brain damaged, vulnerable patients, this would be unethical to replicate. therefore, this reduces the reliability.
43
what is a strength & weakness of the theory in terms of reliability and validity?
a strength of tulvings ltm theory is that it has high reliability. for example, memory is often related to the hippocampus which is studied using brain imaging. brain scans are credible, objective measures as they can be checked by multiple researchers. however, it is suggested that the medial temporal lobe is used for both episodic and semantic memories. therefore this suggests that there is not much of a separation between the two stores which reduces the theory’s validity.
44
what is a weakness of tulvings LTM theory (PEE)?
HM
a weakness of Tulving’s LTM theory is the opposing evidence from HM. this is because when he was asked to draw a star, he improved everyday but didn’t recall ever drawing one. therefore, this suggests that there is a third LTM store (procedural) which involves skills you do not have to think about to carry out.
45
what are the applications of Tulving’s theory of LTM?
a strength of tulvings ltm theory is the practical applications. for example, it states that in order for episodic memories to be retrieved, cues should be formed at the time of encoding. therefore, this applies to eye witness testimony. in order to gain a more accurate EWT, police should use cues such as contextual reinstatement in cognitive interviews where witnesses can re imagine the scene of the crime
46
who proposed the theory of reconstructive memory?
Bartlett
47
Define schema.
a concept or framework that organises and interprets information
48
Describe individual differences in memory.
* processing speed
* digit span
* schemas
49
What was the aim of Sebastian and Hernandez-Gil (part 1)?
To investigate the development of the phonological loop in children aged 5-17.
50
What was the procedure used in Sebastian and Hernandez-Gil (part 1)?
3 sequences of 3 digits were read out. Participants were asked to recall them in order. An additional digit increased the length with each round.
51
What were the results of Sebastian and Hernandez-Gil (part 1)?
Digit span increases with age. Digit span in Spanish children is lower than English children.
52
What were the conclusions of Sebastian and Hernandez-Gil (part 1)?
The word length effect is related to the process of sub-vocal rehearsal which appears at age 7 and comes from the fact that there is no significant difference between Spanish and English children before age 7.
53
What was the aim of Sebastian and Hernandez-Gil (part 2)?
To compare the findings to their previous research of elderly people and dementia patients.
54
What was the procedure used in Sebastian and Hernandez-Gil (part 2)?
3 sequences of 3 digits were read out. Participants were asked to recall them in order. An additional digit increased the length with each round.
55
What were the results of Sebastian and Hernandez-Gil (part 2)?
The elderly group had a higher digit span compared to 5-6 year olds. The elderly group's digit span was not significantly different from the other year groups. Patients with dementia had a higher digit span than 5 year olds.
56
What were the conclusions of Sebastian and Hernandez-Gil (part 2)?
The phonological loop is affected by age in general but not so much by dementia.
57
What are the strengths of Sebastian and Hernandez-Gil's study?
Generalisability - large diverse sample used. Reliability - standardised procedures were used. Applicability - helped scientists to look at the effects of the phonological loop.
58
What are the weaknesses of Sebastian and Hernandez-Gil's study?
Validity - the experiment was performed in a lab setting which lacks mundane realism.
59
What individual differences were considered in Sebastian and Hernandez-Gil's study?
Researchers ensured that there weren't any differences, e.g., hearing impairment.
60
How does Sebastian and Hernandez-Gil's study relate to psychology as a science?
It is high in objectivity as results are quantitative.
61
What aspect of reductionism is present in Sebastian and Hernandez-Gil's study?
It only focuses on the phonological loop as an explanation for memory.
A-level Psychology Edexcel
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