1
Q
What is demography?
A
The study of populations and their characteristsics.
2
Q
What are the characteristsics of demogrpahy?
A
- Size
- Age structure
- Births
- Deaths
- Immigration
- Emigration
3
Q
Births
A
- The number of lives per thousand of the population per year.
- Long term decline in number of births since 1900.
- Approx 29 in 1900, 12 in 2014.
- Baby booms
4
Q
Patterns of baby booms.
A
- A baby boom is a period marked by a significant increase of birth rate.
- The first 2 came after the world wars (1914-18 and 1939-45) as returning service men and their partners started families that they had postponed during the war.
5
Q
The total fertility rate (TFR).
A
- Average number of children women will have during their fertile years.
- The factors determining the birth rate are the proportion of women who are of childbearing age (15-44) and how fertile they are.
- UK’s TFR has steadily decreased since the 60’s
- More women are remaining childless
- Women are postpoining having children: average age of giving birth is approx. 31 and fertility rates for women in their 30’s and 40’s are increasing.
6
Q
Patterns of TFR.
A
- On average it has decreased since its all time peak in 1964 (aprox. 3) and had a steep decline in 1977 (approx. 1.7).
- Lowest rate was recorded in 2020 (approx. 1.6) due to the start of the coronavirus pandemic.
7
Q
Reasons for the decline in birth rate.
A
Include social, economic, cultural, legal, political and technological factors.
8
Q
1 - Changes in women’s position.
Harper (2012)
A
- Legal rights
- Education (women do better than men in school)
- More women in paid employement with equal rights
- Easier access to divorce
- Birth control and abortion
- Changes in attitudes
Harper - education is the most important reason for the long term fall in birth rates and fertitlity rates
- There has been a change in mindset - leading to fewer children
- Educated women are more likely to use family planning and see other possibilities.
9
Q
2 - Decline in infant mortality rates.
Brass and Kabir (1978)
A
- IMR is the number of children who die before their first birthday, per thousand babies born alive, per year.
Harper - fall in IMR leads to fall in birth rate. - In 1900, IMR in the UK was 154
- In 2018, IMR in the UK was 4
- Improved housing, better nutrition, better healthcare, better knowledge of hygiene,fall in number of married women working, improved services: antenatal and postnatal, mass immunisation, use of antibiotics and improved midwifery contributed to the fall in IMR in the 20th century.
- Brass and Kabir - the trend to smaller families began not in, rural areas where IMR originally began to fall, but in urban areas, where the IMR remained higher for longer.
10
Q
3 - Children are now an economic liability.
A
- Until the 19th century children were an economic asset
- Laws - banning children labour, compulsory schooling and raising shcool leaving age - children are dependent on parents for longer.
- Changing norms - what do children have the right to expect?
- Parents therefore feel less able or willig to have a large family.
11
Q
Child centredness.
A
Childhood is now socially constructed as a uniquely importnant period in the individuals life. Encouraged a shift from quantity to quality.
12
Q
Future trends in birth rates.
A
- Overall birth rates, fertility rates and family sizes have falllen in the last century.
- There was a slight increase in births after 2001 but sicne 2012 there has been a slow decrease.
- Immigration could be a reason for this - these mothers tend to have a higher fertility rate.
13
Q
Effects of changes in fertility.
A
- The family
- The dependency ratio
- Public services and policies
14
Q
1 - The family.
A
Smaller families mean women are more likely to be free to go to work, creating the dual earner couple, BUT, family size is only one factor - for example better off couples may be able to have large families and still afford childcare which allows both of them to work
15
Q
2 - The dependency ratio.
A
- The relationship between working and non-working parts of the population.
- Less children = ‘reduces the burden of dependency’ BUT in the long term there will be a smaller working population and the burden of dependency may begin to increase again.
Vanishing children
- Childhood may become lonelier, more childless adults might mean less voices speaking up for them OR childhoood could become more valued.
16
Q
3 - Public services and policies.
A
- Fewer schools, child health and maternity services needed.
- Affects to maternity and paternity leave and the type of home built BUT many of these are political decisions, for example instead of reducing the number of schools, the government could decide to have smaller classes.
- Ageing population - because women are having fewer babies the average age of population is rising. This will have an effect on the types of services needed.
17
Q
Deaths.
A
- The number of deaths per thousand of the population per year.
- In 1900, the death rate was 19
- In 2012, it had more than halved to about 9
- The death rate had begun falling from 1870 and continued to do so until 1930
- Rose slightly during 30/40’s - the period of the great depression followed by WWII but since 50’s it has declined slightly.
18
Q
Reasons for the decline in death rate.
Tranter (1966)
A
- Tranter found that over 3/4 of the decline in death rate from 1850 to 1970 was due to a fall in the number of deaths from infectious diseases such as measles, small pox, and tuberculosis (TB)
- Deaths from diseases were most common for the younger generation and msot of the decline of death rates occured among infants, children and young adults.
- By the 50’s, ‘diseases of affluence’ (wealth) such as heart disease and cancers had replaced infectious diseases as the main cause of death.
- These degenerative diseases affect the middle age and older generations more than the young.
19
Q
How/why does wealth impact health…
1 - Improved nutrition.
Mckeown (1972)
A
- Mckeown argues that improved nutrition accounted for up to half the reduction in death rates and was particularly important in reducing the number of deaths from TB. Better nutrition increases resistance to infections and increased survival chances of thsoe who become infected.
- However, he doesnt explain why females who receive a smaller share of the family food supply lived longer than males.
- He also fails to explain why deaths for some infectious diseases actually rose at a time of improving nutrition.
20
Q
2 - Medical improvements.
A
- After the 50’s, improved medical knowledge, tecnniques and organisation did help to reduce death rates
…Introduction of antibiotics
…Immunisation
…Blood transfusion
…Improved maternity services
…NHS (1948) - More recently, improved medication, bypass surgery, and other developments have reduced deaths from heart disease by 1/3.
21
Q
3 - Smoking and diet.
Harper
A
- Harper - the greatest fall in death rates has not come from medical improvements but from a reduction in the number of people smoking.
- In 1971, the Public Health Cigarette Smoking Act made it illegal for tobacco companies to advertise cigarettes on TV/radio.
- 1st July 2007 - became illegal to smoke in any pub, restaurant, nightclub, most workplaces and vehicles anywhere in the UK.
- In the 21st century, obesity increased dramatically and has become the new lifestyle epidemic.
- Deaths from obesity has been kept low as a result of drug therapies.
- Harper - suggests we may be moving to an ‘American’ health culture where lifestyles are unhealthy but a long lifespan is achieved by use of costly medication.
22
Q
4 - Public health measures.
A
-20th century - governments with the necessary power passed and enforced rules such as:
…improvements in housing
…purer drinking water
…laws to combat the adulteration of food and drinks
…the pasteurisation of milk
…improved sewage disposal methods
- Clean Air Acts reduced air pollution such as the smog tht led to 4,000 deaths in 5 days in 1952.
23
Q
Other social changes.
A
- The decline in dangerous manual occupations such as mining.
- Smaller families reduced the rate of transmission of infection.
- Greater public knowledge of the causes of illness.
- Lifestyle changes, especially the reduction in the number of men who smoke.
- Higher incomes, allowing a healthier lifestyle.
24
Q
Life expectancy.
Harper
A
- How long on average a person born in a specific year is expected to live.
- As death rates have fallen, life expectancy has increased:
…Males born in England in 1900 could expect on average to live until they were 50, and females 57.
…Males born in 2018 were estimated to live until they were 79, and females 83. - Over the past 2 decades, life expectancy has increased by about 2 years per decade.
- One reason for lower average life expectancy in 1900 was the fact that so many infants and children did not survive beyond the early years of life.
- A newborn baby today has a better chance of reaching their 65th birthday than a baby in 1900 had of reaching its 1st birthday.
- Harper predicts that we will soon achieve ‘radical longevity’ with many more ‘centenarians’. The number of centenarians in the UK rose to the highest level ever in 2020, reaching 15,120.
25
Class, gender and regional differences.
| Walker (2011)
- There are still class, gender and regional differences despite the overall increase in life expectancy snd decrease in death rate.
- For example, **women usually live longer than men**, however this *gap narrowed due to changes in employment and in lifestyle* - more **women smoking**.
- People living in **northen England and Scotland** have a *lower life expectancy* than those in the **south**, while **WC men** in **unskilled or routine jobs** are *3x more likely to die before they are* **65** compared with men in **managerial or professional jobs**.
- **Walker** - those living in the *poorest areas of England* **die on average 7 years earlier** than those in the *richest areas*.
26
3 - The ageing population.
| Hirsch (2005)
- The **average age of the UK population is rising**.
- In **1971** it was **34**
- In **2021** it was **42**
- There are *fewer young people* and more old people.
- In **2021**, the *amount of people 65 and over* is **more** than the amount of people *15 and under*, whereas in **2014** there was an *equal number*.
- **Age pyramid** shows how *older age groups are gorwing* as a proportion of the population, while *younger groups are shrinking*.
- **Hirsch** - notes the **traditional age pyramid is disappearing** and being replaced by more or less *equal sized 'blocks'* representing the **different age groups**
27
Causes for the ageing population.
- **Increasing life expectancy** - people are living longer into old age
- **Declining IMR** - less children dying before their 1st birthday
- **Declining TFR** - fewer young people are being born in relation to the number of old people in the population.
28
# What effects the ageing population has on...
1 - Public services.
- *Older* people consume a **larger proportion of services** such as *health and social care* than any other group.
- However, many people remain in **relatively good health** well into old age.
- The prevalence of **long term health conditions increases with age**, according to a **2010** estimate made by the **Department of Health**, such conditions account for **70%** of total *health and social care* spending in England
- Around **55%** of welfare spending is currently *paid to pensioners* with the state pension by far the biggest element of this.
29
2 - One person - pensioner households.
- The number of **over 65's living alone** in the UK has *risen* by **15%** in the last decade from **3.4million** in **2008** to **3.9 million** in **2018**.
- % of **over 65's living alone** has **increased** from **45% to 48%** over the same period.
- Most of these are female, because **women generally live longer than men** and and are usually **younger then their husbands**.
- Among the **over 75's**, there are *twice as many women* as there are men = **'feminisation of later life'**.
30
3 - The dependency ratio.
- Further **fiscal pressure** is also likely to result from a **decline in the working population** relative to the **number of pensioners**.
- A **lower proportion of people in work means low tax revenues** and a **higher public expenditure.**
- It's expected that the **pensioner population will continue to rise.**
- In **2014** there were **3.2** people of *working age* for *every person of pensionable age* - this ratio is expected to *fall* to **2.7 by 2037**.
31
Ageism, modernity and portmodernity.
- One consequence of an ageing population - the **growth of ageism**. The **negagtive stereotyping and unequal treatment** of people based on their *age*. For example, *discrimination in employment* and *unequal treatment in healthcare*.
- Old age and ageing has been **constructed as a problem** in terms of the *cost of pensions or health care for the old.*
32
Migration.
- Refers to the **movement of people from
place to place**. It can be **internal**, within a society or **international**.
- For most of the 20th century until the **80's**, there were **fewer immigrants than emigrants**.
33
Define net migration.
**Difference** between the **numbers of immigrants and the number of emigrants.**
34
Immigration.
- Refers to the **movement into a society**
- **1900** - until WWII the **largest immigrant group were the Irish**, mainly economic reasons, followed by **Eastern and Central European Jews** and people from British descent from **Canada and the USA**.
- During the **50's**, black immigrants *from the Caribbean began to arrive in the UK*. During the **60/70's** **South Asian immigrants from India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka** and **East African Asians from Kenya and Uganda** arrived.
- Creates more *ethnically diverse society*.
- **2011** - *ethnic minority groups* accounted for **14%** of the population which increased to **19%** in **2021**.
- *Immigration and nationality acts* placed **severe restriction** on **non white immigration**. By the **80's**, **non whites** accounted for **1/4 of all immigrants**, while the majority of white immigrans came from *countries within the EU.*
35
Emigration.
- Refers to the **movement out of a society**.
- **Mid 16th century to the 80's** - *more emigrated to live elsewhere* than came to settle in the UK.
- Since **1900** emigrants have gone to the *USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa.*
36
Reasons for emigration...
- **Push factors**: economic recession and unemployment at home.
- **Pull factors**: higher wages or better opportunities abroad.
37
Population size.
- *Increase* in both **immigration and emigration**. These trends affect the *size of the UK population, its age structure and the dependency ratio.*
- **Net migration is high**
- **Natural increase with births exceeding deaths**. Births to *non UK mothers* account for **25%** of all births. However, births remain below the *'replacement level'* **2.1**
- If not for net migration, the **UK's population would be shrinking**.
38
Age structure.
Immigration **lowers the average age of the population** both directly and indirectly.
- **Directly** - immigrants are generally *younger*: e.g., in **2011**, the *average age of UK passport holders was* **41** whereas that of a *non Uk pasport holder* living in Britain was **31**.
- **Indirectly** - being younger, immigrants are *more fertile and thus produce more babies.*
39
Dependency ratio.
- Immigrants are more likely to be of *working age* and this helps to **lower the dependency ratio**. Many migrants return to their home countries in their **older age to retire**.
- However, the migrants are having **more children which then increased the dependency ratio**. Although overtime they will *join the labour force* and and help to **lower the ration again**.
- The longer a group is settled in a country the closer their **fertility rate comes to the national average**, *reducing their overall impact on the dependency ratio*.
40
Define globalisation.
- The idea that **barriers between
societies are disappearing** and people are
becoming **increasingly interconnected across
national boundaries**.
- There has been a **speeding up of the rate of
migration.**
- Between **2000** and **2013** *international migration* has *increased* by **3%**.
41
Differentiation.
| Steven Vetrovec
- Globalisation has **increased the diversity types of migrants.**
- Different types of migrants: *permenant settlers, temporary workers, spouses and forced refugees such as asylum seekers*.
- In **2014** there were more **Chinese** born (**26%**) *postgraduates students* than **UK** born (**23%**).
- **Steven Vetrovec**: *Super diversity* - migrants now come from a *wide range of countries*. Individuals differ in terms of their *legal status*. A given ethnic group may also be divided by *culture or religion* and be *widely dispersed throughout the UK*.
42
Differentiation
| Robin Cohen (2006)
There are **class differences among migrants** that have been identified by Cohen:
- **Citizens** - have *full citizenship rights*. Since the **70's**, the UK has made it *harder* for immigrants to *acquire these rights.*
- **Denizens** - *privileged foreign nationals* welcomed by the state. For example, *billionaire oligarchs* or *highly paid employees* of multinational companies.
- **Helots** (slaves) - most *exploited* group. States and employers regard them as **'disposable units of labour'**. They're found in *unskilled, poorly paid work* and *illegally trafficked workers* and those *legally tied to particular employers.*
43
The feminisation of immigration.
- In the past **most migrants were men**, however today **almost half of global migrants are women**.
- This has been called the **globalisation of the gender division of labour**, where female migrants found that they are fitted into *patriarchal stereotypes* about women's roles as *carers or providers of sexual services*.
44
What do Ehrenreich and Hochschild say about the feminisation of migration?
| (And Shutes 2011)
Ehrenreich:
- Observe that **care work, domestic work and sex work** in Western countries like the **UK** and the **USA** is increasingly done by *women*.
- This is a result fo several trends:
...**Expansion of service occupations** in western countries has led to an *increasing demand for female labour.*
...Western **women** have joined the **labour force** and are *less willing or able to perform domestic labour*.
...Western **men** remain *unwilling to perofrm domestic labour.*
...The **failure of the state** to provide *adequate childcare*.
- The resulting gap has been **partly filled by women from poor countries**.
- **Shutes** reports that **40%** of *adult nurses are migrants*. Most of these being **women**.
Hochschild:
- Global transfer of **women's emotional labour**, e.g. nannies providing *care and affection for their employers children* at the *expense of their own children being left behind in their home country*.
- Migrant women enter **western countries** as **'mail orders'** brides - reflects *gendered and racialised sterotypes.*
- Women migrants also enter the UK as **illegally trafficked sex workers**, often kept in *conditions* amounting to *slavery*.
45
Migrant identities - John Eade 1994
- Migrants may develop **hybrid identities** made of up of 2 or more different sources.
- **John Eade** - the 2nd generation **Bangladeshi muslims created hierarchal identities**: they saw themselves as **muslim first**, then **bengali**, then **british**.
- Those with hybrid identities may find *others challenge their identity claims* or *accuse them* of not really **'fiiting in'.**
46
Transitional identities - Hylland Eriksen 2007
- **Hylland Eriksen** - gobalisation has *created more migrant patterns wtith back and forth movements of people* through networks **rather than permenant settlement in another country**.
- Migrants are **less likely** to see themselves as **belonging completely to one culture or country**. They may **develop transitional 'neither/nor' identities** and *loyalties*.
- Modern **technology** makes it *impossible to sustain global ties* without having to travel.
- Globalised economy means **migrants have links to other migrants around the world** than to either country or origin of settlement.
47
The politicistion of migration
- States now have policies that **seek to control, absorb migrants into society** and deal with **increased ethnic and cultural diversity**.
- Immigration policies have also become **linked to national security** and **anti-terrorism policies.**
48
Multiculturalism.
| Eriksen
- *Accepts* migrants may wish to **retain a separate culture identity.**
- However this may be *limited to superficial aspects of cultural diversity*. **Eriksen** distinguishes between the two:
...**Shallow diversity** - regarding *chicken tikka masala as Britains national dish* is **acceptable** to the state.
...**Deep diversity** - *arranged marriages or the veiling of a woman* is **not acceptable** to the state.
49
Assimilationism
**- First state policy to approach to immigration.**
- Aimed to *encourage the immigrants* to **adopt the language, values and customs** of the host culture to make them '**like us**'.
- However, these policies face the *problem* that **transitional migrants with hybrid identities** may *not be willing to abandon their culture* or to see themselves as *belonging to just one nation state.*
50
Criticisms of the politicisation of migration - Castles and Kosack
| Castles (2000)
- Critics argue that **multricultural education policies celebrate shallow diversity** while failing to **address deeper problems facing children** from migrant backgrounds such as **racism**.
- From the **60's**, there was a move *towards multiculturalism* but since **9/11**, many politicians have gone back towards **demanding that migrants assimilate culturally**.
- In **France**, the *veiling of the face* was made **illegal** in **2010**.
- **Castles** - assimilationalist policies are **counter productive** because they *mark out minority groups as culturally backwards and 'other'*. This can lead to groups **emphasising their differences in such a way** that makes them seem like the '**enemy from within**'.
A **divided working class**- assimilationist ideas may also *encourage workers to blame migrants for social problems such as unemployment*, resulting in **racist scapegoating**.
- **Castles and Kosack** - *benefits capitalism* by creating a **racially divided working class** and **preventing united action** in defense of their interests.
