Topic 8: Issues and Debates Flashcards

Question

What is a limitation of the nature - nurture debate? (Adoption studies - counterpoint)

Answer 1

Research actually suggests that nature and nurture cannot be pulled apart. Plomin says that people create their own nurture, by actively selecting environments which suit their nature, this then further influences their development. This is called niche picking. Suggests it does not make sense to look at evidence of either nature or nurture.

Answer 2

An example of how environmental affects can span generations comes from the effects of WW2. The Nazi's blocked the distribution of food to dutch people and 22000 died of starvation. Susser and Lin reported that women who became pregnant at the time went on to have low birth weight babies and were also 2x more likely to develop schizophrenia when they grew up compared to more typical population rates. Supports the view that the life experiences of previous generations leave epigentic markers which influence the health of their offpsring.

Answer 3

Rsearch suggests that OCD is a highly heritable mental disorder, e.g Nestadt put the heritability rate at 0.76. This can inform genetic counselling. People with a high genetic risk of developing OCD can receive advice about the likelihood of developing the disorder and how they might prevent this. Shows the debate isn't just theoretical but also practical.

Answer 4

Nativists suggest that anatomy is destiny - our genetic makeup determines our characteristics or behaviour with little environmental input. This determinist stance has led to controversy such as linking ethnicity, genetics and intelligence. In contrast, empiricists suggest that behaviour can be changed by altering environmental conditions, behavioural shaping has had practical application in therapy, desirbale behaviours are selectivly reinforced, and undesirable behaviours are punished or ignored.

Answer 5

Only makes sense to study a system as a whole rather than split it up into it's constiuent parts. This was the view of gestalt psychologists. Focuses on the individuals experiences which cannot be reduced to simpler units.

Answer 6

Human behaviour is best understood by breaking it up into it's constiuent parts.

Answer 7

All phenomena should be explained by using the simplest principles.

Answer 8

Socio - cultural level Psychological level Physical level Environmental/behavioural level Physiological level Neurochemical level

Answer 9

Attempts to explain behaviour in terms of biological mechansisms such as genes or hormones.

Answer 10

Attempt to explain all behaviour in terms of stimulus response links that have been learned through experience.

Answer 11

May lack practical value. Holistic accounts of human behaviour tend to become hard to use as they become more complex. This presents research with a practical dilemma, if we accept that there are many different facotors contributing to depression then it's hard to know which is most influential. So hard to know which to prioritise as a basis for therapy. So holistic accounts may lack practical value.

Answer 12

Forms the basis of the scientific approach. In order to conduct well controlled research we need to operationalise the variables to be studied - break target behaviours into constituent parts. So we can conduct experiments and observations in an objective and reliable way. Gives psychology greater scientific credibility placing it on equal terms with the natural sciences.

Answer 13

Oversimplifies complex phenomena reducing validity. Explanations that operate at the level of a gene of neurotransmitter do not include an analysis of the social context within which behaviour occurs, where the behaviour may derive it's meaning. Suggests that reductionist explanations can only ever form part of an explanation.

Answer 14

Some behaviours can only be understood at a higher level. There are aspects of social behaviour that only emerge within a group context and cannot be understood in terms of the individual group members. e.g the effects on conformity to social roles in the Stanford Prison experiment could not be understood by observing the participants as individuals. It was the interaction between people that was important. There is no conformity gene so it can only be explained at the level which it occurs. So for some behaviours, higher level explanations provide a more valid account.

Answer 15

The basis of cognitive neuroscience is reductionist - cognitive processes are the result of physical processes in the brain. However, neuroscientists struggle to explain the subjective experience of the same neural process, eg thinking about the colour blue involves the same region and activity in the brain as thinking about the colour red, but the thought is different. This the explantory gap, in brain science and suggests that thinking iss at lest 1 step beyond what it happening in the brain.

Answer 16

Focuses on the individual case as a means of studying behaviour, rather than aiming to form general laws of behaviour.

Answer 17

Aims to study human behaviour through the development of general principles and universal laws. Make generalisations and establish norms.

Answer 18

- small sample size - Focus is on detail about the individual case - generalisations are not made - Based on qualitative data on a particular facet of human behaviour. - data is analysed and themes created - Conclusions may help otehrs going through similar experiences or help mental health professionals determine best practise e.g

Answer 19

- The humanistic approach - Rogers sought to explain the process of self development including the role of unconditional positive regard derived from in depth conversations with clients in therapy. - freud's observations of individuals were the basis for his explanations of human nature, e,g little hans phobia case study.

Answer 20

- Generalisation in order to create laws which could be applied to individual situations. - Based on quantitative data - Fits with the scientific method - Hypotheses are generated and samples of people are assessed and numerical data is analysed for it's statistical significance.

Answer 21

- Skinner studied animals to make general laws about learning - Sperry used split brain research to understand hemispheric lateralisation.

Answer 22

Laws of behaviour are only possible if methods of assessment are delivered in a standardized and objective way ensuring true replication occurs and removes bias.

Answer 23

It is people's individual experiences of their unique context that is important.

Answer 24

It contributes to the nomothetic approach. Uses in depth qualitative methods providing a global description of an individual. May complement the nomothetic approach by shedding light on general laws or by challenging laws. A single case may generate hypotheses for further study. So although the focus is on fewer individuals it may still help form scientific laws.

Answer 25

Supporters of the idiographic approach should still the acknowledge the narrow and restricted nature of their work. Meaningful generalisations cannot be made without further examples as this means there is no adequate baseline with which to compare behaviour. Case studies are also unscientific as conclusions rely on unscientific interpretations and are open to bias. So hard to build effective general theories of human behaviour in the complete absence of nomothetic research.

Answer 26

Fit with the aims of science. Processes involved in nomothetic research are similar to those used in the natural sciences e.g establishing objectivity through standardisation, control and statistical testing. Researchers using the idiographic approach also seek to objectify their methods e.g triangulation, where findings from a range of studies using different qualitative methods are compared to increase validity. Also reflect upon their own biases and preconceptions. Both approaches raise psychology's status as a science.

Answer 27

Loss of understanding of the individual. The nomothetic approach is preoccupied with general laws, prediction and control so has been accused of losing the whole person within psychology. So in search for generalities, it fails to relate to experience.

Answer 28

Each is appropriate in different situations for different research aims. e.g schaffer's stages describe general stages of development whereas case studies of extreme neglect highlight subjective experience of never having formed an attachment. Also approaches are just at 2 ends of a continum, Millon explains that when diagnosing a personality disorders for example, clincians focus on general nomothetic criterea then use this to focus on the individual and their unique needs.

Answer 29

Consequences of any research in terms of effects on the individual participants or on the way in which certain groups are regarded, there may also be consequences on a wider societal level.

Answer 30

Studies in which there are potential consequences of implications either directly for the participants in the research or for the class of individuals represented by the research.

Answer 31

Individual participant may reveal personal infomation which can be accessed by a future employer. Findings may suggest that people with depression never fully recover and are a risk as an employee. In terms of social policy findings could inform preferred treatment options recommended by the NHS.

Answer 32

Sieber and Stanley warn that the way in which research questions are phrased and investigated may influence the way in which findings have been interpreted. For example, Kitzinger and Coyle note how research into relationships has been guilty of heterosexual bias.

Answer 33

Issues such as informed consent, confidentiality and psychological harm are especially important in socially sensitive research. e.g in a study on domestic abuse, particiapnts may worry that an ex partner may find out about the study, and also likely to be stressful for a participant to describe their experiences. Participants may provide informed consent at the start but may not fully understand the effect of the research.

Answer 34

Consider in advance how the findings will be used, may affect what data is collected. Important as findings from research may be seen as giving scientific credence to existing prejudices. The media is interested in sensitive infomation and will publicise it.

Answer 35

Has benefits for the groups being studied. In 1952, homosexuality was listed in the dsm5 as a sociopathic personality disorder but removed it in 1973. Credited to the Kinsey report, which was based on anonymous interviews with over 5000 men about their sexual behaviours. Concluded that homosexuality is a typical expression of human sexual behaviour. Report also included data on 6000 women and caused outrage at the time as these were topics that no on discussed. Illustrates the importance of researchers tackling sensitive topics.

Answer 36

In some studies, there could be negative consequences for the groups being studied. Research investigating the genetic basis of criminality has found there is a criminal gene. If this is true, does it mean that someone is convicted on the basis they have such a gene or should they be excused as they cannot be held responsible for wrongdoing. Suggests when researching socially sensitive topics, need careful consideration of possible outcomes and consequences.

Answer 37

Certain groups rely on research related to socially sensitive issues. Government looks to research when developing important social policies e.g decisions related to child care and education. Preferable to base such policies on scientific research rather than politically motivated views. In the UK there are independent groups, ONS who are responsible for collecting, analysing and disseminating objective statistics about UK's economy, society and population. Such data is used in psychological research. Means psychologists have an important role to play in providing high quality research on socially sensitive topics.

Answer 38

Poor research design may lead to erroneous findings which once in the public arena continue to have impact. Case in Burt's research, as even after the fraud was exposed, the 11+ continued to be used. Access to many indepedent schools is based on a child's performance in an entrance exam taken at age 11 and is likely based on the same reasoning - that genetic potential has revealed itself by this. Therefore, any research on socially sensitive topics needs to be planned with greatest care to ensure findings are valid becuase of the enduring effects on particular groups of people.

Answer 39

The 11+ exam determines what type of secondary school a child goes to. The government at the time based it's policies on Burt's twin studies which showed that intelligence was highly heritable and could be detected by age 11. Later revealed most of the data was fake. The 11+ however, and the idea that children should be separated on the basis of their natural intelligence remained for years.

Answer 40

One way to deal with socially sensitive research is to avoid doing it. APA reported that ethicals committees approved of 95% of non sensitive proposals that didn't include ethical problems whereas sensitive proposals were only approved around 50% of the time. However, Seiber and Stanley advised that ignoring such topics is not a responsible approach. One possibility is to follow qualitative researchers who are more upfront about their own biases and reflexive in their approach.

Answer 41

Any underlying characteristics of human beings that is capeable of being applied to all, despite differences in experience and upbringing.

Answer 42

Research that focuses on differences between men and women and exaggerates these differences.

Answer 43

During the phallic stage, both boys and girls develop a desire for their opposite gender parent, this creates castration anxiety in boys which is resolved when a boy identifies with his father. But a girl's identification with her same gender parent is weaker, meaning her superego is weaker, therefore females are morally inferior to males.

Answer 44

Chodorow suggested that daughters and mothers have a greater connectedness than sons and mothers because of biological similarities, this means that women develop better abilities to bond with others and empathize.

Answer 45

Research that focuses on similarities between men and women and ignores and minimises differences.

Answer 46

Biological research favours using male animals becuase female behaviour is affected by regular hormonal changes due to ovulation. This ignores possible differences. Early research into fight or flight assumed that both males and females respond to threatening situations with fight or flight.

Answer 47

The tend and befriend response. Women respond to stress by increasing oxytocin production, this reduces the fight ot flight response and enhance a preference for tend and befriend.

Answer 48

Normal behaviour is judged according to male standards. Alpha and Beta bias are consequences of androcentrism. Women's behaviour has been pathologised or seen as abnormal.

Answer 49

only 6 women in the list of 100 most influential psychologists suggesting the field of psychology is male dominated.

Answer 50

Gender differences are often presented as fixed and enduring when they are not. Maccoby and Jacklin presented the findings of several gender studies which concluded that girls have superior verbal ability whereas boys have better spatial ability.Suggested that these differences are hardwired into the brain before birth. Joel used brain scanning and found no such sex differences in brain structure or processing. Maccoby and Jackin's findings as it fitted existing sterotypes of girls as speakers and boys as doers. Suggests we should be wary of accepting research findings as biological facts when they may be better explained by social sterotypes.

Answer 51

Psychologists should not avoid studying possible gender differences in the brain. Inghalhalikar suggests that the popular social sterotype that women are better at multi tasking may be true biologically. Women's brains may have better connections between the left and right hemisphere than in a man's brain. So there may be biological differences but we should stillbe wary of exaggerating the effect they may have on behaviour.

Answer 52

Gender bias promotes sexism in the research process. Women remain underrepresented in university departments especially in science. Research is more likely to be conducted by men and this may disadvantage participants who are women. e.g a male researcher may expect women to be irrational and unable to complete complex tasks and such expectations may mean that women under perform in research studies. So the instiutional structures and methods of psychology may produce findings that are gender biased.

Answer 53

Research challenging gender bias may not be published. Formanowicz analysed over 1000 articles relating to gender bias, published over 8 years. Found that research on gender bias is funded less often and is published in less prestigious journals. So fewer scholars become aware of it and apply it within their own work. Still held true when compared with other forms of bias. So gender bias in psychological research may not be taken as seriously as other types of bias.

Answer 54

Gender bias research may create misleading assumptions about female behaviour, fail to challenge negative stereotypes and validate discriminatory practices. Damaging consequences which affect lives and prospects of women. many modern researchers now recognise the effect of their own values and assumptions in their work - reflexivity. They embrace bias as a crucial aspect of the research process.

Topic 8: Issues and Debates Flashcards

(78 cards)