1
Q
What are acute adaptations?
What are chronic adaptations?
A
- Acute Adaptions (responses) to exercise = changes that occur in the body during and shortly after exercise bout
- e.g. creatine phosphate depletion
- Chronic Adaptions = changes in body that occur after repeated training bouts and persist long after a training session is over
- e.g muscle mass gain.
2
Q
What are major characteristics of muscle fiber types?
A
3
Q
What are the 4 factors the affect adaptations to aerobic/resistance training?
A
- Genetics
- Age
- Specificity
- Sex
4
Q
How do the following affect aerobic adaptation?
- Specificity
- Genetics
- What % of genetics account for what % VO2 max an HR Max?
- Sex
- Describe sex differences for:
- Lean muscle mass
- Bodyfat
- Heart size
- Lung Size
- Blood volume
- Cardiac output
- Stroke Volume
- O2 consumption
- How do these differences impact adaptations?
- Describe sex differences for:
- Age
- How does VO2 max change with age
A
- Specificity
- All endurance adaptations will be specific to the type of endurance training
- Genetics
- Our ability to adapt and perform are limited by ceiling of genetic potential
- Genetic factors account for 20-30% of VO2 max and 50% differences in max HR
- Sex
- Changes are similar, but sex differences affect absolute amounts of changes
- Smaller absolute adaptations than males, but similar relative (percent adaptations)
- Lean muscle mass = women have less
- Bodyfat = women have more
- Heart size = women have smaller
- Lung Size = women have smaller
- Blood volume = women have smaller
- Cardiac output = women have lower
- Stroke Volume = women have lower
- O2 consumption = women have lower than males when exercising @ 50% VO2 max
- Changes are similar, but sex differences affect absolute amounts of changes
- Age
- As children age, VO2 max ↑
- Peak at 12-15 for females
- Peaks at 17-21 for males
- VO2 max plateaus (after peaking at above ages) then gradual ↓ with age
- Aerobic training results in only slight age related ↓ in VO2 max if training maintained
- As children age, VO2 max ↑
5
Q
- What is the general principle of how specificity influences RT adaptations?
- What are 2 types of specificity that incluence RT adaptations?
A
- Specificity in resistance training – effects of resistance training specific to muscle action mode in which exercise performed
- Specificity in type/mode of exercise = you get better at the mode you train
- Specificity in velocity of exercise = you get better at the speed you train at
6
Q
- Resistance trianing mode specificity
- What is relationship between dynamic and static exercises?
- What maximizes strength increase in out of gym performance?
- Give examples for strength test/training
- Isometric training and free weight performance relationship?
- Resistance training velocity specificity
- How training velocity impacts testing results
- What type of training improves power production?
A
- Type of Exercise
- Poor correlation between dynamic and static exercise and strength
- E.g. static training doesn’t give dynamic strength
- Strength increases largest when tested in modes similar to training
- Training with weights = strong with weights
- Trianing with isokinetic exercises= strong with isokinetic tests
- Poor correlation between dynamic and static exercise and strength
- Velocity Specificity
- Strength increases greatest when individuals tested in situations involving muscle actions at velocities similar to those experienced in training
- Power production more improved with plyometric-type training than with slow-velocity, heavy resistance
7
Q
How does sex influence RT adaptation?
How does sex influence notice starting point?
A
- Sex – males and females respond similarly to resistance training, but start with quantitative differences in strength, muscle mass, and hormone levels
8
Q
- Describe body size differences between sexes.
- What are these differences result of?
- Describe sex differences in upper and lower body strength
- How does sex influence force production capability
- Describe strength differences in relation to body comp
- Sex influence on muscle CSA per unit
A
- Differences in body size and composition
- Men larger, more muscle mass ➔ differences in strength
- Women higher percentage of body fat ➔ less muscle per pound of bodyweight
- Size/composition differences from differences in hormone levels
- Body strength sex differences
- Similar lower body strength
- Men stronger upper body strength
- Force production capability of given ammount of muscle not affected by sex
- Strength differneces shrink when comparing strength to fat free mass
- Sex differeces negligible when comparing per unit of muscle CSA
9
Q
- What impact does age have on RT adaptations?
- What 2 things declines with age. What is it called and at what age does decline begin?
- Which motor units are most impacted by age?
- How can these effects be moderated and reversed?
- 3 things does RT increase in elderly?
- Function
- performance
- Size
A
- Age → diminished ability to produce force and deminished speed of force production
- Sarcopenia: progressive decline of muscle mass (and potentially muscle quality) starting in 30’s.
- High-threshold, fast-twitch muscle fibers lost with age → deminished ability to quickly generate force
- With high intensity RT
- Muscle function
- General motor performance
- Type I and II muscle fiber size
10
Q
- How do genetics infleunce RT adaptations?
- How do genetic infleunce combine with sex and age?
A
- Genetics influence relative % of type I and II fibers, which places limits on hypertrophy, explosive and aerobic endurance capabilities
- Sex plays role in gene expression, additional ceiling on hypertrophy and strength
- Age limits available muscle mass and propagation of action potentials limiting speed and strength of movement
11
Q
What is difference between hypertrophy and hyperplasia?
What on a cellular level, what 3 things occur during hypertrophy?
A
- Hypertrophy = ↑ in muscle size
- ↑ in # of contractile proteins (actin and myosin) within in myofibrils, which ↑ myofibril size
- ↑ in # of myofibrils in muscle cell/fiber
- Both 1 and 2 → ↑ myofibril diameter → ↑muscle cell/fiber diameter
- Hyperplasia (not proven to occur in humans) = increasing number of muscle fibers by splitting of existing myofibrils into daughter myofibrils
12
Q
How does blood supply influence CT adaptations?
A
- Ligaments and tendons have poor blood supply and relatively few living cells w/in extracellular material ➔ prolonged adaption time
13
Q
What adaptations likely occur in tendons and ligaments in response to aerobic training? What intensity is required?
A
- Ligament/tendon strength and thickness ↑ if intensity > daily activity and systematic increases in intensity to ensure progressive overload
- Low to moderate intensities not markedly change in collagen content of connective tissue
- Intensity must be greater than that applied in daily activities
14
Q
What are likely adaptations in tendons and ligaments in response to RT?
A
- ↑ Ligament and tendon strength
- ↑ Tendon stiffness
- Long-term adaptations in tendons, ligaments, and fascia stimulated through progressive high intensity loading patterns using external resistances
15
Q
- What adaptations occur in cartilage in response to aerobic training?
- In response to RT?
A
- Moderate running program may ↑ cartilage thickness
- Moderate intensity resistance training may ↑ cartilage thickness
16
Q
What adaptions occur to bone in response to AET? How to maximize adaptions?
In response to RT? How to maximize adaptions?
A
- AET =
- No ∆ if intensity low
- ↑ if intensity high enough – high intensity interval training = best
- Requires intensity that consistently exceeds strain on bone than placed during usual daily activities
- RT =
- No ∆ if intensity not high enough
- ↑ in BMD and bone strength is intensity high enough
- ↑ in muscle strength and size → ↑ in mechanical stress on bones during exercise → stimulation of bone growth mechanisms
17
Q
What is the process called that of building bone? What are mechanisms that increase BMD?
A
- Remodeling = constant process of destroying/building bone
- Osteoclasts = cells that break down bone
- Osteoblasts = cells that stimulate bone synthesis
18
Q
- What is general recommendation for increasing BMD?
- Increase with _ aet, _, _, _combo
- What are 4 recommendations for AET program design for increasing BMD?
- _ = ineffective
- _ + _ = better than above
- _ with _ loading ↓ age related bone loss
- _ ↑ bone mass
- What are 4 recommendations for RT program design for increasing BMD?
- __joint, _ exercsises that involve _
- Exercises that direct a_
- _ load exercises, _ impact exercises
- _ overload, increasing _
A
- ↑ BMD with high intensity weight-bearing aerobic exercise, plyometrics, resistance training, or combo
- Aerobic exercises
- Walking ≠effective in preventing bone loss with aging
- Walking + intermittent jogging = better than just walking
- Jogging with Higher-intensity bone loading forces ↓ age related bone loss
- High intensity weight bearing exercises ↑ bone mass
- Resistance Training
- Multi-joint, structural exercises that involve many muscle groups
- Exercises that direct axial force vectors through spine and hip
- Heavy load exercises, high impact exercises
- Progressive overload, increasing load exposed to tissues
19
Q
- How to help conserve FFM when in deficit?
- What is relationship between aerobic activity and amount of fat loss?
- What levels are recommended for: minimal, moderate, and high weight loss?
A
- Aerobic endurance training + deficit = help conserve fat free mass
- Dose response relationship between amount of aerobic activity and amount of fat loss
- >150 minutes moderate activity = minimal weight loss
- <150 minutes - moderate
- 225-420 = high weight loss
20
Q
What 2 changes in BF stores occur in resposne to resistance training?
Give 3 points of interest for fat loss relating to RT
A
- ↓ % body fat
- ↑ Fat free mass
- Higher volume burns more calories than lower volume
- Resistance training elevates metabolism during recovery period
- ↑ in FFM may ↑ RMR and TDEE
21
Q
What are 4 possible chronic adaptions to neuromuscular system in response to AET?
- Efficiency
- MU discharge rate
- MU recruitment threshold
- Decline of MU conduction velocity during sustained contactions
A
- ↑ neural efficiency
- ↓ motor unit discharge rate
- ↓ motor unit recruitment thresholds
- ↓ in decline rate of motor unit conduction velocity during sustained contractions
22
Q
- How do specific modes of training dictate neural adaptions?
- 3 ways heavy resistance training leads to maximal strength/power of trained muscles?
- 2 ways neurological adaptions from AET imrpove performace
A
- You become more neurologically efficient at what you practice
- Heavy resistance → maximal strength gains b/c
- ↑ in motor unit recruitment
- To meet force production needs
- ↑ firing rate
- Greater synchronization of neural discharge → improved coordination of muscle activity of multiple muscles
- ↑ in motor unit recruitment
- 2 ways neurological adaptions from AET imrpove performace
- Improved movement mechanics
- Delay in fatigue of contractile mechanisms
23
Q
A
24
Q
What adaptions occur within muscle cell in response to aerobic training?
- Type 1 CSA
- Fber type distribution
- capillary supply
- Mitochondrial density
- oxidative enzyme activity
- intermuscular stores of glycogen
- Myoglobin Concentration
A
- No change or small increase in Type 1 CSA
- Shift in muscle fiber type distribution Type 2 ➔ Type 1
- Small ↑ % of Type 1 fibers
- Small ↓ % Type 2x fibers
- ↑ capillary supply ➔ ↑ blood flow to better feed muscles nutrients and pick up waste
- ↑ mitochondrial density (↑ size and number of mitochondria per cell)
- ↑ oxidative enzyme activity ➔ ↑ rate of slow oxidative system
- ↑ intermuscular stores of glycogen ➔ slower to fatigue aka better endurance
- ↑ Myoglobin Concentration (iron-containing protein in muscle cells, acts as reservoir and transport of oxygen within muscle to mitochondria) ➔ ↑ transport of O2 to mitochondria
25
What 11 adaptions occur within muscle cell in response to RT?
* Type 1 CSA
* Type 2 CSA
* % Type 2a
* % Type 2x
* % Type 1
* Absolute levels of:
* Phosphagen system enzymes
* Glycogen system enzymes
* ATP
* CP
* Concentration of
* Phosphagen system enzymes
* Glycogen system enzymes
* ATP
* CP
* ATP and CP changes during exercise
* Lactate increase during exercise
1. *↑ Type 1 CSA (small)*
* Even with heavy lifting, Type 1 Muscle fibers ↑ b/c of size principle for motor unit recruitment
2. *↑ Type 2 (↑ \> Type 1 ↑)*
3. *↑ % Type 2a*
4. *↓ % Type 2x*
5. No *∆ % Type 1*
6. ↑ absolute levels of:
* Phosphagen system enzymes
* Glycogen system enzymes
* ATP
* CP
7. Potential ↑ in Concentration of
* Phosphagen system enzymes
* Glycogen system enzymes
* ATP
* CP
8. ↓ ATP and CP changes during exercise
9. ↓ Lactate increase during exercise
26
3 possible chronic neurological system adaptions to RT?
* Motor unit _ and \_
* EMG during max muscle contractions
* \_-Contraction
1. ↑ Motor unit recruitment and firing unit rate
1. Able to recruit more motor units
* Untrained folks are generally unable to activate all motor units, resistance training ↑ ability to recruit more motor units
2. ↑ in EMG amplitude during maximal muscle contractions
1. EMG measures the muscular response to neurological electrical activity
2. EMG activity corelates to strength of muscle contraction and number of activated muscles
3. Higher voltage – stronger contraction, more activated muscle fiber
3. ↓ Co-contraction (simultaneous activation of agonist and antagonist muscles) ↓ antagonist torque that must be overcome by agonist → ↑ strength expression
27
What are acute cardiorespiratory responses during aerobic exercise?
1. Heart Rate
2. Stroke Volume
3. Cardiac output
4. Total Peripheral Resistance
5. blood flow to coronary vasculature and coronary artery diameter
6. Skeletal muscle blood flow
7. Splanchnic blood flow
8. Mean Arterial Pressure =
9. Systolic Blood Pressure
10. Diastolic blood pressure
11. Rate Pressure Product RPP
12. Plasma volume
13. Hematocrit
1. ↑ Heart Rate
2. ↑ Stroke Volume = EDV-ESV
* End Diastolic Volume = blood in ventricles after filling
* End Systolic Volume = blood in ventricles after contraction
* Frank-Starling mechanism = stroke volume increases proportional to volume of blood filling heart (EDV)
1. ↑ venous blood to heart stretches heart walls
2. ↑ elastic contractile force from stretch in heart walls
3. a + b = ↑ in blood ejected from left ventricle
3. ↑ Cardiac output = HR x SV
4. ↓ Total Peripheral Resistance (resistance to blood flow caused by exercise, nervous stimulation, metabolism, and environmental stress)
* Result of vasodilation which occurs to divert blood to working muscle
5. ↑ blood flow to coronary vasculature and coronary artery diameter
6. ↑ Skeletal muscle blood flow
7. ↓ Splanchnic blood flow
8. ↑ Mean Arterial Pressure = average blood pressure through cardiac cycle
* MAP = DBP + [.333 x (SBP-DBP)]
* MAP = Q x TPR
9. ↑ Systolic Blood Pressure
10. No ∆/ slight ↓ Diastolic blood pressure
11. ↑ Rate Pressure Product RPP (estimation of work of heart) = HR x SBP
12. ↓ Plasma volume (as ↑ in BP forces plasma from blood into intercellular space)
13. ↑ Hematocrit (proportion of blood that is red blood cells)
28
What are 4 accute respiratory responses to aerobic exercise?
1. ↑ Pulmonary Minute Ventilation (Ve) = BR x TV
2. ↑ Breathing Rate
3. ↑ Tidal Volume
4. ↑ Respiratory Exchange Rate or Respiratory Quotient = VCO2/Vo2
* As RQ/REE approaches 1, increase in percentage of energy derived from
29
What are 5 acute cardiorespiratory changes to acute RT?
1. HR
2. SV
3. SBP and DBP
4. Cardiac Output
5. VO2
1. ↑ HR
2. ↑ SV
3. ↑ SBP and DBP
4. ↑ Cardiac Output (Q)
5. ↑ VO2
30
What cardiorespiratory adaptions in response to chronic aerobic training?
* Heart
1. ↑ Left ventricular _ chamber diameter
2. ↑ _ muscle thickness
3. ↑ _ muscle thickness
* Blood
1. ↑ Blood \_
2. ↑ _ blood volume (rapid)
3. ↑ _ blood cell volume (takes few weeks)
* Blood Pressure
1. ↓ _ blood pressure
* Respiratory system
1. ↑ _ muscle endurance
2. ↑ Respiratory muscle \_
* Heart
1. ↑ Left ventricular end-diastolic chamber diameter
2. ↑ Left ventricular muscle thickness
3. ↑ Coronary ventricular muscle thickness
* Blood
1. ↑ Blood volume
2. ↑ Plasma blood volume (rapid)
3. ↑ Red blood cell volume (takes few weeks)
* Blood Pressure
1. ↓ Resting blood pressure
* Respiratory system
1. ↑ Ventilatory muscle endurance
2. ↑ Respiratory muscle aerobic enzymes
31
What are 10 cardiorespiratory adaptions to chronic RT training?
1. Resting HR
2. Resting BP
3. Rate Pressure Product
4. absolute magnitude of stroke volume
5. _ wall thickness
6. capillarization in proportion to muscle growth
7. Mitochondrial density
8. Myoglobin concentration
9. LDL-cholesterol
10. HDL-cholesteral
11. Total cholesterol
1. ↓ Resting HR
2. ↓ Resting BP
3. ↓ Rate Pressure Product = HR x SBP, a measure of myocardial work
4. ↑ absolute magnitude of stroke volume, it ↑ in proportion to lean body mass ↑
5. ↑ in left ventricular wall thickness, proportional to body mass ↑
6. ↑ capillarization in proportion to muscle growth
7. ↓ Mitochondrial density
8. ↓ Myoglobin concentration
9. No ∆ or slight↓ in LDL-cholesterol and total cholesterol
10. No ∆ or slight ↑ in HDL-cholesterol
32
What are metabolic adaptions in response to AET?
1. Lactate threshold
2. Stored ATP,
3. Stored creatine phosphate
4. Stored glycogen
5. Stored triglycerides
6. Phosphagen and glycogen enzyme activity
7. Mitochondrial and capillary density
8. Reliance on fat as energy source
9. Use of carbohydrates during _ exercise
1. ↑ Lactate threshold
2. ↑ Stored ATP, creatine phosphate, glycogen, and triglycerides
3. ↑ Phosphagen and glycogen enzyme activity
4. ↑ Mitochondrial and capillary density
5. ↑ reliance on fat as energy source
6. ↓ use of carbohydrates during submaximal exercise
33
What are 6 metabolic adaptions from RT?
* substrate absolute levels
* Enzyme absolute levels
* substrate concentration
* enzyme concentration
* substrate changes during exercise
* __ ↑ during exercise
1. ↑ Absolute levels of CP and ATP
2. ↑ Absolute levels of phosphagen system and glycolytic system enzymes
3. Potential ↑ concentration of CP and ATP
4. Potential ↑ in concentration of phosphagen and glycolytic systems enzymes
5. ↓ CP and ATP changes during exercise
6. ↓ Lactate ↑ during exercise
34
What are acute metabolic responses to Aerobic exercise?
1. Oxygen consumption (\_)
2. Arteriovenous oxygen difference
3. Blood lactate
4. Blood pH
1. ↑ Oxygen consumption VO2
1. Calculate VO2 with Fick equation. VO2 = Q x a-vO2 difference
2. ↑ Arteriovenous oxygen difference (a-vO2)
3. ↑ Blood lactate
4. ↓ Blood pH
35
What are acute metabolic responses to RT session?
1. Hydrogen ion concentration
2. CP concentration
3. Inorganic Phosphate concentration
4. Glycogen concentration
5. Ammonia levels
6. ATP concentration
1. ↑ Hydrogen ion concentration
2. ↑ Inorganic Phosphate concentration
3. ↑ Ammonia levels
4. ↓ CP concentration
5. ↓ Glycogen concentration
6. No ∆ or slight ↓ ATP concentration
36
What are hormonal responses during aerobic exercise?
1. Catecholamines
2. Glucagon
3. Insulin
4. Insulin sensitivity
5. Cortisol @ low to moderate intensity
6. Cortisol @ moderate to vigorous intensity ( \> \_% VO2 max)
7. Growth hormone
* ↑ Catecholamines
1. to facilitate cardiovascular changes (e.g. norepinephrine and epinephrine, fight or flight hormones to help deliver blood/oxygen to working muscles)
* ↑ Glucagon
1. to stimulate conversation of plasma glycogen to glucose
* ↓ Insulin + ↑ Insulin sensitivity
1. Prevents glucose transport to non-working cells so glucose can be used for exercise energy
2. ↑ glucagon + ↓ insulin = enhanced fat breakdown in tissue + ↑ fatty acids as fuel source
* ↓ Cortisol @ low to moderate intensity
1. * ↑ Cortisol @ moderate to vigorous intensity ( \> 60% VO2 max)
1. Cortisol promotes use of fats
2. Stimulates conversion of proteins for aerobic systems/glycolysis
* ↑ Growth hormone
1. Works with cortisol and glucagon to make fats and carbohydrates available for metabolism
37
What are 4 hormonal responses to a RT session? (ECTG)
* ↑ Epinephrine concentration
* ↑ Cortisol concentration
* ↑ Testosterone concentration
* ↑ Growth hormone concentration
38
What is overall hormonal adaption to AET?
In what 2 ways does this manifest (think in terms of rise and fall of specific hormones, what hormones?)
* _ response in _ @ same absolute level of submax intensity
1. _ in _ of **e\_**, **n\_**, **g\_**, **c\_**, and **g\_**
2. _ in **size of insulin \_**during submaximal exercise
* **\_**moderate/intense exercise ➔ _ can last _ hours.
* **Acute** effects of exercise \_, but this is not \_
* Blunted response in hormone release @ same absolute level of submax intensity
1. ↓ in **rise** of **epinephrine**, **norepinephrine**, **glucagon**, **cortisol**, an**d growth hormone**
2. ↓ in **size of insulin decrease** during submaximal exercise
* **Acute** moderate/intense exercise ➔ ↑ insulin sensitivity that can last 72 hours.
* **Acute** effects of exercise can improve long-term glucose control, but this is not a result of chronic adaption in muscle function
39
What are 3 hormonal adaptions in response to RT?
(magnitutde, concentrations, sensitivity)
1. No ∆ in resting Growth Hormone concentrations, but cumulative effect of acute ↑ in GH → ↑ hypertrophy
2. ↑ in magnitude of endocrine response
3. ↑ Tissue sensitivity to hormone by ↑ quantity of hormone receptors
40
What are 3 psychological changes in response to chronic exercise?
1. ↑ Serotonin and norepinephrine levels
2. ↓ State anxiety symptoms
3. ↑ Cognition (particularly with aerobic fitness)
41
What are 3 adaptions from chronic exercise that that improve cognition?
1. _ changes
2. _ factors
3. _ efficency
1. _Vascular changes_ = better blood flow to brain à more nutrients to support healthy neural tissue and neural processes
2. _Neurotrophic factors_ = agents that preserve and nourish brain tissue
1. ↑ expression of genes that code for neurotrophic factors
1. Positive relationship with VO2 max and brain tissue density
3. _Neural Efficiency_ = improved CNS fatigue resistance over course of sustained mental effort à ↑mental function
42
* What is gene associated with Alzheimers and what is its association?
* What is relationship between this gene and exercise?
* APOE e4 =g ene that →↑ risk cognitive impairment/Alzheimer’s
* People with APOE e4 have larger magnitude of effect for benefits of exercise and detriments of inactivity
43
* What are 2 effects of exercise in relationship between anxiety and chronic exercise?
1. Feel better effect = Change in \_
* Stress/Anxiety symptoms reduction
1. _ nature may contribute to stress reduction
2. Feel better following intense exercise might be due to _ responses (↑ _ and \_(e.g. \_)
2. _ effect = metabolic _ → _ production during exercise → relaxation
1. Feel better effect = Change in psychological state from exercise
* Stress/Anxiety symptoms reduction
1. Rhythmic nature may contribute to stress reduction
2. Feel better following intense exercise might be due to physiological responses (↑ beta endorphin and neurotransmitters (e.g. serotonin)
2. Thermogenic effect = metabolic inefficiency → heat production during exercise → relaxation
44
How effective is exercise for treating clinical depression?
What are 3 ways exercise influences depression symptoms? What other brain condition does it influence?
* Appears as effective as medication for people experiencing clinical depression
* Exercise elevates levels of biogenic amines in the brain → ↓ depression and Parkinson’s
1. ↑Serotonin (neurotransmitter) levels
2. ↑Dopamine levels and receptor binding sensitivity
3. ↑Norepinephrine levels ↑ with exercise
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* Post exercise hypotension = \_-\_ mmHg _ from aerobic exercise
* Aerobic exercise _ both SBP and DBP by \_-\_mmHg
* Post exercise hypotension = 5-7 mmHg drop from aerobic exercise
* Aerobic exercise decreases both SBP and DBP by 4-7mmHg
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2 Program Design
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