Understanding the Self Flashcards

Question

Assimilation

Answer 1

where new experiences are fitted into existing schema

Answer 2

measures the 3 systems involved in attention (alerting, orienting and executive control) proving that networks are partly independent

Answer 3

how many things someone might simultaneously focus on

Answer 4

how long someone stays focused

Answer 5

a small brainstem structure, just at the top of the end of the spinal cord, one of the deepest brainstem structures, also a source of norepinephrine

Answer 6

sudden, short-term boost in readiness, after a warning signal, relies on both hemispheres eg when a fire alarm goes off

Answer 7

long-term, sustained readiness, relies on more of the right hemisphere, eg focusing on driving for hours

Answer 8

was the first person to state that vision occurs in the brain and not being able to see might be caused by issues with the brain, not always the eyes, and started vision is subjective and affected by personal experience

Answer 9

the main strand of thinking become Psammetichus’s experiment, where people believed that emotions and thoughts were messages from the Gods

Answer 10

involved in conflict resolution; activity increases when people face conflicting choices, eg the Stroop test, also the part of the brain involved in physical pain

Answer 11

active in conflict in cognition, eg abstract thinking, rule-based tasks, located on top, eg choosing between two equally valid mathematical studies

Answer 12

active in emotional conflict, located at the bottom, eg decides whether to look at something or ignore it

Answer 13

found you see perfectly in the fovea and vision drops quickly once it's not in the fovea, with a sudden blip to zero in the blind spot and created a graph to show this

Answer 14

father of natural sciences, lived from 384-322BC, came up with syllogistic logic and naturalistic observations, disagreed with Democritus and said touch and taste are the same

Answer 15

states performance follows the Yerkes-Dodson Law, where performance improves with arousal until an optimal point, but too little or too much arousal reduces and performance and the optimal level depends on task difficulty

Answer 16

immune cell regulating the blood-brain barrier, maintaining homeostasis

Answer 17

the idea that nature is made of a single substance, "all is water"

Answer 18

core function is to link the vast complexity of the environment to the much smaller subset of experience that we consciously register, with an interface that governs how we interact with the external world and our internal states, eg thoughts and feelings, and allows the selective control of actions so that they watch current goals

Answer 19

refers to systematic biases in how people explain the causes of behaviour, for example, people often over-emphasise internal factors such as personality and underestimate external factors when explaining other people's behaviour but do the opposite for their own behaviour

Answer 20

where someone overemphasises external factors to explain their own behaviour

Answer 21

where someone overemphasises internal factors and underestimates external factors when explaining other people's behaviour

Answer 22

29% of learning disabled people are autistic

Answer 23

maintains homeostasis by controlling unconscious processes such as heart rate, breathing and digestion

Answer 24

where people allow others to direct their actions with responsibility passed on to those giving orders, relies on people giving orders as being seen as a legitimate source of power and instruction and the people giving orders will take responsibility for what happens

Answer 25

believed there were five inner senses and came up with ventricle theory, which challenged humour theory, also believed there were 15 types of pain

Answer 26

where it is harder to learn lists with the same items because of interference

Answer 27

vivid, socially consequential memories, are not special or more accurate and are often embellished

Answer 28

culturally shared events that structure memories

Answer 29

better memory occurs from the teens to twenties than at any other time, only found in Western cultures due to all the significant life events that happen around this time

Answer 30

conducts electrical impulses

Answer 31

integrates signals and indicates action potential

Answer 32

release neurotransmitters to other neurones

Answer 33

argued object permanence develops earlier than Piaget thought, at roughly 6 months

Answer 34

inflammation can lead to brain changes and increased pain sensitivity; specific cytokines activate microglia, which release molecules that lead to neural excitability, which can lead to central sensitisation, in brain areas associated with pain, therefore lowering the pain threshold and is also associated with mood changes and fatigue changes; inflammation can also impair pathways that normally lessen pain

Answer 35

brain structure involved in muscle control, learning, problem solving and processing emotions

Answer 36

area of the basal ganglia involved in conscious and unconscious movement

Answer 37

area of the basal ganglia involved in movement and learning

Answer 38

area of the basal ganglia involved in learning and executive control

Answer 39

area of the basal ganglia involved in reward and movement

Answer 40

area of the basal ganglia involved in motor activity

Answer 41

area of the basal ganglia involved in the reward system

Answer 42

states mental illness results from learned behaviours, with a focus on classical and operant condition which led to behaviour modification and exposure therapies, particularly for phobias

Answer 43

found when a new alpha male arrived in a group, it was very stressful for the females due to a higher risk of infanticide and harassment

Answer 44

found people maximise utility over money in the St Petersburg Paradox

Answer 45

recognises gene-environment interaction

Answer 46

states mental disorders can be explained by genetics, brain structure and neurochemistry, for example, depression is linked to low serotonin, so treatments should target the brain, eg medication, brain stimulation and genetic research

Answer 47

looks at combining pharmacological medications such as opioids, NSAIDS, anti-depressants and anticonvulsants with psychological treatments such as CBT, mindfulness, relaxation techniques and biofeedback; combining approaches addresses the fact that pain involves physical, emotional, cognitive and social factors and medications reduce nociceptive signals whilst psychological interventions improve coping, reduce stress and prevent pain amplification

Answer 48

proposed by George Engel, integrates biological, psychological and social influences and is the dominant framework today because it recognises the complexity of mental health and how it is influenced by many different factors

Answer 49

took place after 2000, focused on the biopsychosocial model which integrates biological, psychological and social factors, leading to global health initiatives such as WHO, trauma-informed and youth-centred approaches such as early intervention and a greater focus on neurodiversity, reducing stigma, recognising cultural and contextual factors and digital mental health; meanwhile advances in neuroscience led to brain imaging and understanding of genetics and biomarkers

Answer 50

looked at how, by identifying with a group, you may receive support from ingroups, but may be stigmatised by outgroups, so it may not be healthy to openly identify with the group

Answer 51

states pain is influenced by biological factors such as disease severity, nocicpetion, inflammation and brain function and psychological factors such as mood, affect, catastrophising, stress and coping mechanisms and social factors such as cultural factors, social environment, economic factors and social support; pain is the result of interplay between these factors

Answer 52

command centre of the autonomic nervous system

Answer 53

sent 3 digits though each ear and found if participants were asked to pay attention in both ears, they could, suggesting there was a sensory buffer

Answer 54

involved in speech production

Answer 55

states development is shaped by nested contexts and historical time, creating a shift from 'child in a lab' to 'child in a lived world' where settings interact, so the child's development is shaped by 5 environmental forces

Answer 56

the individual child is at the centre, shaped by innate factors eg sex, age, health

Answer 57

the child's immediate environment eg family, peers, school, health services

Answer 58

represents interconnections between those around the child, eg relationships between peers and their parents, relationships between parents and their colleagues

Answer 59

attitudes and ideologies of the immediate environment, eg industry, social services, mass media and local politics

Answer 60

attitudes and ideologies of overarching culture that influences all other systems eg ethnicity, geographic location

Answer 61

the impact of time and life experiences

Answer 62

studied tactical deception in baboons, found baboons use a typically honest behaviour in a misleading way, using the same behaviour in honest and deceitful contexts. This involves concealing mating behaviour from dominants, feigning disinterest in good or social interactions to avoid competition or aggression and use indirect routes to avoid detection when approaching valuable food or social partners. This suggests baboons anticipate others' reactions and adjust their reactions strategically, involving a rudimentary theory of mind

Answer 63

stated that large brains and distinct cognitive abilities observed in primates had evolved in response to the Machiavellian social strategies needed to survive and reproduce in complex social environments; intelligence has evolved to allow manipulation, deception, cooperation, competition and the formation of alliances allowing the understanding of other intentions, prediction of behaviour and managing of relationships, which are cognitively demanding tasks selected for enhanced brain power

Answer 64

injected a black dye that he developed into animals that made the neurones clear against a black background, allowing him to study how the brain was connected, suggesting this showed a continuous network of fused fibres

Answer 65

suggests the brain coordinates feelings and bodily changes at the same time, with the thalamus and hypothalamus being the command centres

Answer 66

model by Kahneman (1973), states that attention has a limited pool and attentional effort can be measured by pupil dilation, explaining why performance drops when doing two tasks simultaneously

Answer 67

argues that arousal affects performance but arousal is brought about due to evaluation apprehension

Answer 68

brain area involved in the reward system

Answer 69

consists of the nucleus of a neurone

Answer 70

consists of the brain and spinal cord, allows integration of information and deciding what to do with that information, works with the cerebellum and basal ganglia

Answer 71

where processes that aren't normally painful are

Answer 72

separates frontal and parietal lobes, allowing communication between the primary motor cortex and primary somatosensory cortex

Answer 73

where a child is unable to understand that water poured from one glass to another is still the same amount of water despite looking different, developed between age 7 and 11

Answer 74

largest part of the brain, divided into four lobes

Answer 75

regulates higher intellectual processes

Answer 76

reframed development as an adaptive change that occurred over time through evolution, kept a baby biography of his son, William, noting the development of imitation and emotion

Answer 77

came up with the idea of synapses and the synaptic cleft, demonstrating that neurones integrate excitation and inhibition before firing

Answer 78

proteins that bring about specific directional movement to recruit immune cells to a sight of inflammation or injury

Answer 79

found monkeys have three different alarm calls; one for predators where the best response was to hide, one for predators where the best response was to climb a tree and one for predators where the best response was to look carefully to avoid it, demonstrating referential communication

Answer 80

looked at how we can focus attention into one conversation in a crowded room by making people do a dichotic listening procedure, meaning they had to speech shadow. People were only able to recite the stream they were told to pay attention to, and were unable to tell almost anything about the other

Answer 81

where infants respond to the world through automatic, innate reflexes eg sucking their thumb by accident and then finding it comforting

Answer 82

proposed drive reduction theory

Answer 83

Pavlov's theory on how associations form

Answer 84

the ability to classify objects into different categories, developed between age 7 and 11

Answer 85

nerve tissue in the abdomen which slows digestion, decreases glycogenesis and increases norepinephrine as dictated by the autonomic nervous system

Answer 86

developed by Aaron Beck, states that thoughts, feelings and behaviours exist in a triadic cycle so mental health is linked to cognitive distortions and negative thinking patterns, which leads to mental illness eg catastrophising leads to anxiety and thoughts of worthlessness lead to depression; this led to cognitive behaviour therapy which helps patients identify and challenge these thoughts

Answer 87

took off in the 1960s, marking a return to studying the mind in a scientific manner, uses experimental models to investigate internal mental processes like thinking, memory and problem-solving, overcoming the limitations of structuralism and behaviourism; relies on models to test hypotheses

Answer 88

the ability to understand and manipulate combinations of objects in order to solve problems, developed after age 11

Answer 89

the study of probability in decision making

Answer 90

true understanding or knowledge

Answer 91

type of conformity, involves doing as one is asked or required by regulations

Answer 92

based on the idea that neurones are boolean, either firing or not, good for studying reaction times

Answer 93

family of genetic conditions where a person doesn't feel pain, either because nociceptors don't develop or do develop but don't respond to tissue signals, often affecting life expectancy because people don't receive warning signals from pain

Answer 94

where a child is able to understand that water poured from one glass to another is still the same amount of water despite looking different, developed between ages 7 and 11

Answer 95

good for studying concepts like attention and memory

Answer 96

unifies input from the external sense into a single perceptual experience

Answer 97

model by Neisser (1967), states there is no single attentional system but stimuli compete for attention

Answer 98

attention is the natural outcome of inputs fighting for dominance, with no special system needed

Answer 99

combines stored formes after perception

Answer 100

a general form of social influence where one's thoughts, feelings and behaviours converge with an external standard

Answer 101

explanations for important events that involve secret plots from powerful, malevolent groups

Answer 102

found autism characteristics in the general population and proposed autism is merely the extreme of a spectrum rather than being in binary opposition to 'non-autistic'

Answer 103

looked at whether you are more likely to believe in conspiracy theories if you think your ingroups do. This involved three studies: one where 111 students had to rate how highly they believed in 7 conspiracy theories and how highly they believed fellow students and another ingroup chosen by the participant would believe in them; one where 117 British citizens had to rate how highly they believed in 7 conspiracy theories and how highly they believed other British citizens believed them; one where 197 British parents had to rate how highly they believed in 7 anti-vaccine conspiracies and how much other parents believed in them. All 3 groups overestimated how much their ingroups believed in conspiracy theories and found a positive correlation between how strongly participants identified with the group, how much they believed the ingroup believed in conspiracy theories and how much they did. There was no correlation with the outgroup

Answer 104

used signals to tell participants where a target might appear and found involvement of the parietal cortex and frontal eye fields

Answer 105

where the brain is sliced thinly, allowing access to deep brain structures

Answer 106

connects the two hemispheres, allowing information to travel between them

Answer 107

a cortical map of which parts of the brain control which body parts, demonstrated the head and face occupy far more corticol space than other body parts, such as hands and feet

Answer 108

conditions characterised by inflammation of the digestive tract, often alongside fever, fistulae and weight loss

Answer 109

a paper by Gustave Le Bon, states that when individuals join a crowd, they form a collective mind, losing their individual rationality and self-control, thus being impulsive, irritable and highly susceptible to suggestion and contagion of emotions, acting on instinct rather than reason, thus exaggerating feelings and allowing people to be easily led by strong, charismatic acts

Answer 110

proteins involved in immunity, cross into the brain and increase brain sensitivity, broaden immune regulation and inflammation

Answer 111

came up with somatic marker hypothesis, which states bodily signals which are consciously processed by the body guide choices

Answer 112

where fingers represent the prefrontal cortex, which regulates thinking; the thumb represents the amygdala, which regulates the alarm system; the palm represents the brainstem, which regulates autonomic behaviours necessary for survival

Answer 113

born a boy in 1965 but raised as a girl after a surgery to treat phimosis caused severe damage to his penis, was taught to be a girl through behaviourism as it was believed at the time gender identity was primarily learned through upbringing, but became suicidal due to gender incongruence and later transitioned back to a man, took his own life in 2004 after divorce, financial ruin his twin brother's suicide in 2002, as his brother also struggled with anxiety due to their upbringing

Answer 114

the receptor targeted by enkephalins

Answer 115

took place in the mid to late 20th century, saw large psychiatric hospitals close down, leading to a shift to community care due to beliefs that long-term institutionalisation led to harm including dependency, neglect and social isolation; the DSM led to standardised diagnostic criteria and there was a rise in psychopharmacology and the introduction of anti-depressants and anti-psychotics

Answer 116

tree-like branches that receive electrical signals and carry them toward the cell body

Answer 117

signal travels from place of injury up to the brain, causing pain; the signal is an animal spirit and the brain is the soul

Answer 118

looks at how people actually decide, looking at deviation from rationality, looking at the most rational decision and whether to deviate from it, comparing actual behaviour to normative decision making using an experimental, statistical approach

Answer 119

looks at how an ideal, fully rational person should make a decision, relies on breaking the problem into smaller binary decisions, eg if you prefer red over blue and blue over yellow, you must prefer red over yellow

Answer 120

involves acknowledging people aren't logical and make irrational decisions and create practical tools to improve choices

Answer 121

emphasised the awareness of sensory stimuli, ignoring Asian theories about control, believed consciousness is distinct from body processes, claimed the pineal gland was the seat of soul-body interaction, though this was wrong

Answer 122

disagreed with Broadbent and Treisman, believed all messages get through but only one response can be made

Answer 123

came up with the idea of chimpanzee politics, found male chimpanzees compete for dominance rank, with the strongest, biggest monkey being the ape. This fulfills natural selection theory, allowing genes to be passed on to the next generation. Male chimpanzees form alliances through grooming, with these relationships slowly developing over time; subordinates then use these alliances to gang up on dominants to gain power, similar to human politics

Answer 124

classification system in the US, often still influences research, public understanding and medical models in the UK

Answer 125

published in 1952 after the Second World War, based on psychoanalytical theory and diagnoses were vague

Answer 126

published in 1968, still based on psychoanalytical theory but controversy grew around certain diagnoses, including homosexuality, due to concerns about reliance on subjective clinical judgement

Answer 127

published in 1980, viewed as a turning point for a revolution in psychiatric criteria by removing psychoanalytical framework and introducing operational diagnostic criteria with a goal to improve interrater reliability, marked by a rise of the biomedical model and psychopharmacology; homosexuality was removed after activism and political pressure

Answer 128

published in 1994, with the terminal version being published in 2000, was more evidence-based but was criticised for being too categorical, led to more diagnoses like ADHD and bipolar disorder

Answer 129

published in 2013, led to major restructuring with the removal of the multiaxial system and autism one combined into one category and there was more dimensional thinking, eg introduction of levels of severity

Answer 130

published in 2022, aims to avoid pathologising wording through updated language and revised criteria for some diagnoses and introduced new emphasis on cultural formulation

Answer 131

where something is played in one ear and something else is played in the other

Answer 132

a physical or mental impairment that has a substantial or long-term negative impact on your ability to do daily activities

Answer 133

individual cells not linked to any others, allowing only unidirectional flow of information

Answer 134

shifting attention form an invalid cue, eg looking left because you expect a ball to be thrown, but then quickly shifting right when the ball comes from the opposite direction

Answer 135

a group of symptoms involving abnormal behaviours or physiological conditions, persistent or intense distress or a disruption of physiological functioning

Answer 136

secondary neurones off the spine that receive nociceptive stimuli

Answer 137

states behaviour is a response to internal needs rising from disturbances in homeostasis and learning buildings habits to satisfy that drive

Answer 138

theory that language has evolved from social bonding mechanisms, reshaping cognitive resources for group living, allowing social bonding and reputation management, rather than deception; conversational turn-taking is cognitively demanding and requires memory, timing and prediction and it's cognitively demanding to understand indirect requests, eg sarcasm and metaphors

Answer 139

looked at grooming behaviour in primates as a bonding agent in primates and found there is a limit to how much time they spend grooming (20% of the day) irrelevant of how large the group is, because they have to do other things to survive. This suggests language has developed as a social tool to maintain social relationships across a large group size without spending an excessive amount of time grooming, which would damage survival chances

Answer 140

states the ideal group size for humans based on their neocortex size would be 150 and this is the upper limit of friendships we can adequately maintain based on brain capacity

Answer 141

target the kappa receptor

Answer 142

grasps abstract intentions eg hostility and friendliness

Answer 143

stores intentions for future use

Answer 144

stores sensory information after perception

Answer 145

does a good job of answering the wrong question

Answer 146

a response to structuralism and functionalism that eliminates questions dealing with the mind from discussion entirely, focusing on how a specific stimulus evokes a specific response using objective observations and measuring behaviour objectively

Answer 147

PET scans found reduced blood flow in the left basal ganglia and postmortems found abnormal anterior cingulate and frontal temporal circuits

Answer 148

psychopaths have reduced ventral ACC activity when viewing fearful faces, suggesting weaker emotional regulation

Answer 149

where a person with brain damage cannot see stimuli yet can still orient to them via alternative pathways in the superior colliculus and parietal lobe, showing attention can operate with conscious awareness

Answer 150

found that smells are processed in stages with smells originally being picked up by peripheral ends of neurones distributed across the olfactory mucosa with neurones then projecting to the glomeruli and the olfactory bulb

Answer 151

1979 model by Cass, initially designed to explain sexual identity formation but has now been used for other LGBTQ+ communities

Answer 152

a person first becomes aware of their homosexual thoughts, often leading to confusion, turmoil, shock, repression and especially denial

Answer 153

a person examines the wider implications of being homosexual, eg grieving not being able to have children naturally; this may lead to compartmentalisation, eg happily engaging in homosexual behaviour but rejecting any homosexual identities

Answer 154

a person acknowledges their homosexuality and seeks out community to combat isolation and internalised homophobia; they may try out a variety of stereotypical roles during this time

Answer 155

a person attaches a positive connotations to their homosexuality and accepts it, though may continue to explore grief and internalised homophobia

Answer 156

a person comes out

Answer 157

a person integrates their homosexuality with all other aspects of their identity

Answer 158

originally tried to apply Nafe's inaccurate theory to taste but later found Von Frey's theory of different receptors was more accurate for taste as well

Answer 159

a group of neurones that perform a given function

Answer 160

shows the difference between nerve reaction times, allowing the estimation of different speeds around the nervous system

Answer 161

states emotion is a complex evolutionary psychological event involving a physiological response (arousal), expressive reaction (eg. facial expression) and somatic experience (internal thoughts). There are primary or basic emotions (joy, anger, fear, sadness and disgust) and social or moral emotions (anxiety, envy, boredom, embarrassment) and a difference between emotion (internal, longitudinal content) and affect (external expression of emotional content). This involves dedicated neural circuits known as affect programs, the limbic systems, subcortical structures eg amygdala, hypothalamus, brain stem, which mediate the bodily state of emotion and cortical structures eg frontal, cingulate and parahippocampal cortices, which mediate conscious feelings of emotion

Answer 162

we cannot identify things without attending to them and attention is a limited resource

Answer 163

first to discover the difference between sensory and motor neurones

Answer 164

made people create a simulated driving game involving getting to the end of a road as quickly as possible; each time they reached an intersection they had to decide whether to stop and take a 3 second hit or run the red light and maybe take a 6 second hit. Participants played once alone and once in the presence of 2 same-sex friends. Adolescents took more risks with friends, adults were slightly more risky and young adults were less risky. MRI scans found peer presence sensitises incentive processing regions of the brains in adolescents, not adults and they showed elevated ventral striatum and orbitofrontal cortex activity when peers were present, predicting increased risk-taking. This suggests reward systems are hypersensitive to social context whereas they are hyposensitive to cognitive control. Peer presence, not familiarity, heightens rewards, however tasks may involve more sensation-seeking than inhibition

Answer 165

ability to sense the passage of time

Answer 166

the idea that humans spontaneously chunk stuff to remember into smaller groups

Answer 167

the idea that cisgender identifies are the default and all other gender identities deviate from this, this became the dominant view after colonialism, studied by Robinson (2020)

Answer 168

a Roman scholar who came up with the heliocentric model of the universe and discovered the importance of the brain, going against Aristotle's theory that the soul is in the heart, also identified hard nerves (motor neurones) and soft nerves (sensory neurones)

Answer 169

the format in which memory data is stored, eg sensory register is coded as raw sensory data, STM is coded acoustically and LTM is coded semantically

Answer 170

mental processes that help us understand things: perception, attention, memory, language, problem-solving, decision-making, creativity, intelligence

Answer 171

blends cognitive psychology and neuroscience when attempting to specify how the brain gives rise to mental processes that store and process information; the goal is to discover the nature, organisation and operation of mental events by studying the brain and to distinguish among different sorts of mental processes by showing that different brain areas give rise to those processes

Answer 172

categorised people as low, middle or high socioeconomic status and controlled for race, age, gender and body mass; found the lower your socioeconomic status was, the more stressed you were

Answer 173

compares humans to animals

Answer 174

where rehearsal cannot happen because all stores of the working memory model are constantly being used

Answer 175

read a maths equation out loud and say whether it's true or not, then read out a random word and repeat

Answer 176

state whether an image is symmetrical, then report the location of a red square and repeat with different graphics

Answer 177

based on the core idea of bottom-up processing with three computed stages and an engineering problem-solving approach, developed by David Marr in 1980; processing is built from a retinal image; representation is internal, built from raw input, with some basic constraints and biases, with a foucs on visual processing stages

Answer 178

higher-level processes used to shape our perception of sensory input

Answer 179

the same as iconic signs

Answer 180

what we're aware of

Answer 181

based on the core idea that reality is top-down, hypothesis-driven and states that the brain has evolved to solve problems and has biases, developed by Von Helmholtz and Gregory; processing is top-down and the brain imposes structure onto sensory information; representation is done by internal mental models and are constructed by perception and the focus is on interpretation and illusions

Answer 182

the state of awareness of our own experiences, of sensation, our own thoughts and sensations, not attention, which can operate without consciousness, also a state that is in contrast to the being unconscious; how attention relates to awareness

Answer 183

the conditional probability of a specific competing form being chosen to encode a given meaning

Answer 184

changing stimulus to electrical activity

Answer 185

a range of mechanisms designed to reduce stress or the impact of stressors

Answer 186

states a cue directs attention without eye movement and there are faster reaction times when attention has been cued

Answer 187

by Eisenberger and Lieberman (2003), measured participants' MRI results when playing a computer game that involved throwing balls around. They found that when a person was left out, the anterior cingulate cortex was activated, and the higher a person rated their distress at being left out, the more the ACC was activated, whereas this was not found when participants were taking turns throwing the ball. This provides early neuroscientific evidence that painful feelings of social rejection rely on some of the same brain circuitry that processes physical pain. This suggests social exclusion acts as a warning system and is an evolutionary process, alerting individuals to threats to their social connections and encourages actions that promote inclusion and survival

Answer 188

using blood samples, found those were high socioeconomic jobs were less happy and more stressed, showing that socioeconomic status is complex and results depend on how you define it

Answer 189

acknowledges that identities and their development is not linear and may vary across the lifespan and be affected by external factors, though only applies to sexuality, not gender

Answer 190

existing a homosexual identity

Answer 191

developing a personal LGBTQ+ identity

Answer 192

developing an LGBTQ+ social identity, whereby someone creates a supportive social network

Answer 193

becoming an LGBTQ+ offspring, whereby someone comes out to their family, in particular their parents

Answer 194

developing an LGBTQ+ intimacy status, whereby someone begins forming and maintaining intimate, romantic relationships

Answer 195

entering an LGBTQ+ community, whereby a person gets involves in social activities and political activism

Answer 196

argued tastes are caused by different 'atomic shapes' with sweet being big and round and bitter being small and round with hooks

Answer 197

published data in German showing slight differences in sensitivity to different taste on the tongue

Answer 198

a process carried out by the STM

Answer 199

found Capuchi monkeys understood fairness and equality in a lab experiment: the monkeys would cooperate to complete a task and one would get a low-quality reward (cucumber) and one a high-quality reward (grape) and they found the monkeys would reject unequal pay, demonstrating the importance of fairness and cooperation. This suggests we have evolved to support cooperation in social groups to enhance trust and group cohesion

Answer 200

where the mind directly perceives and understands the external world, with no intervening mental states or processes

Answer 201

if someone has damage to one area of the brain and this disrupts a particular function, but not another function, we know that area is probably involved in one thing but not another

Answer 202

advanced the field of neuropsychology with cell assemblies and the Hebb Rule

Answer 203

came up with subtractive factors to measure reaction times for tasks of increasing complexity

Answer 204

where you have two different areas of the brain and different sets of symptoms, showing that the two areas are individual of each other

Answer 205

Aristotle's description of dreams

Answer 206

ancient Buddhist idea of suffering which could be avoided through discriminative knowledge

Answer 207

in India, China and Greece, the mind was discovered leading the development of early philosophy, which is similar to current psychology, looking at understanding human behaviour and unseen processes of the mind

Answer 208

states big brains have evolved due to the increased demands of living in complex environments, having to deal with the physical environment and decisions regarding environmental variability, habitats and foraging for food has driven cognitive and brain evolution, thus allowing survival; chimpanzee hammer and anvil behaviour supports this

Answer 209

based on the core idea that there is no mental representation and reality is direct and environment-based, developed by James J Gibson; processing is direct, action-based and movement and invariants are key; the focus is on real-world interaction where objects afford actions, emphasis on dynamic processes but ignores physiology and is implausible

Answer 210

discovered action potential

Answer 211

misinterpreted Hanig's research, because he didn't speak German and created a tongue map showing where different tastes happen, eg bitter at the back, sour at the sides, salty at the tip and sweet in the middle, wasn't proven wrong until the 1900s

Answer 212

the external light that Empedocles believed all objects give off, which interacts with rays from the fire in people's eyes to make sight happen

Answer 213

the ability to regulate behaviour, impaired in people with Borderline Personality Disorder

Answer 214

where a child is unable to understand that other people have different understandings than them, developed between age 7 and 11

Answer 215

found infants can discriminate any phonomes in the world, but by roughly 10 months, attention narrows to native-language phonomes, so Japanese infants lose the ability to distinguish between r and l unless exposed early, but if infants are exposed to phonomes early, even if they are then not exposed to them for the rest of their life, as adults, they can differentiate better than world be allowed by chance

Answer 216

records electrical activity of the brain using electrodes on the scalp

Answer 217

founded sociology as a discipline in France

Answer 218

states that emotions, including your emotional state when making a choice, can anticipate, influence and shift choices

Answer 219

theory by Slovic et al, states quick emotional responses guide decisions more than long-term thinking, explaining smoking

Answer 220

people don't swap lottery tickets, change lottery numbers or miss a week because they anticipate regret if those numbers win

Answer 221

theory by Damasio that bodily signals which are consciously processed by the body guide choices, based on studies of emotionally-impaired individuals who can't differentiate between excitement and anxiety and choose poorly in risk-related tasks

Answer 222

states inflammation influences social behaviour because the immune system being activated leads to sickness behaviour, which is associated with increased sensitivity to threat, including threats to social connection eg rejection, isolation, bereavement, social conflict and social evaluation

Answer 223

case study of someone with damage to the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, had no damage to IQ or memory but significant difficulties making decisions, understanding potential consequences and often came across as blunt or rude despite trying not to ; somatic marker theory suggests Elliot had difficulties appraising certain situations with certain emotions because over time your body learns to respond to certain situations with certain actions and outcome and these learned behaviours help make decisions but the vmPFC is important to integrate the decisions and plan subsequent behaviours, hence Elliot struggled with this and understanding potential consequences of actions

Answer 224

first to record and measure action potential in frogs by stimulating the muscles using a machine and then recording the signals resulting from that stimulation

Answer 225

feelings, bodily changes and goals working together to prepare us for goal-directed behaviour; links autonomic changes caused by objective biology to subjective psychology experience

Answer 226

alive in 500BC, believed the eyes contained fire which emitted rays that interacted with objects to produce sight when internal flame met with external life from objects, believed objects give off effluences that enter pores in the sensory organs, but effluences vary in size and can only enter the appropriate sense organ, hinting at a direct correspondence between the object and the sensation it generates, which is not true

Answer 227

released in times of pain and stress eg endorphins, enkephalins and dynorphins

Answer 228

target the mu receptor

Answer 229

target the delta receptor

Answer 230

perception of balance

Answer 231

dissected human bodies like Herophilius despite it being illegal due to pollution concerns

Answer 232

made participants practise the Stroop task and showed clear improvement on a trained task, with some transfer to similar tasks, but broad generalisation is uncertain. They found students who memorised running times became good at memorising long digit strings but were at no advantage for memorising letters and students who were trained to link visual imagery to words had better memory for pictures

Answer 233

the fear people will judge you

Answer 234

proposed opponent-process theory which argues different colours excite and inhibit with each other (eg red-green, blue-yellow, black-white)

Answer 235

one of three distinct brain networks for perception, involves resolving conflict and decision making

Answer 236

uses probability to work out how much money you could expect to make or lose, should be thought of as a long-run average rather than the average for a one-off event, because of this, it only applies to repeatable decisions

Answer 237

Plato's theory which states visual rays from the eyes combine with daylight to form a connection between the eye and the object

Answer 238

states women underreact to mild pain compared with men but overreact to severe pain and have higher rates of chronic pain; there is stronger activating in pain-processing ACC and insula brain areas in women, but this is also influenced by gender norms because women are encouraged to mask pain; also found that oestrogen reduces pain but increases inflammation, whilst progesterone and testosterone reduce pain and inflammation

Answer 239

the understanding that other individuals have minds and beliefs that may differ from your own

Answer 240

involves the primate watching someone dressed as a chimpanzee steal a rock from a human and hide the rock in a box. The human then runs off, having seen the rock in a box. The costume person then takes the rock away altogether. Using eye tracking, it suggests that some monkey species understand that the human will look in the box for the rock

Answer 241

showed infants prefer novel over familiar stimuli and eye movement measures revealed early cognitive processes, challenging the view that infants are reflexive, non-cognitive little beings

Answer 242

found real behaviour such as preparing breakfast involves subtasks nested in goals and fMRI shows the executive network (ACC) and frontoparietal areas become active when switching between subgoals and whole goals

Answer 243

states pain is a self-reinforcing cycle, where the initial injury causes a pain experience. If the person's pain response involves fear catastrophising, someone's body becomes on high alert, leading to a fear of pain associated with threat perception, defensive motivation and arousal, keeping the body on high alert and leading to avoidance behaviour where someone avoids action out of fear of pain, which can lead to lack of movement, physical discondition and increased sensitivity to pain and depression, which leads the cycle to repeat next time someone experiences pain; this can be treated through exposure therapy, demonstrating movement is safe and leading to recovery

Answer 244

states that there is a non-linear relationship between psychological sensation and intensity of the stimulus, so if something weighs 10kg, it will feel like it weighs 10kg

Answer 245

condition affecting how the body processes nociception, causing widespread chronic pain and inflammation

Answer 246

state mental health training must be included in workplace first aid provisions

Answer 247

sensory neurones that detect stimulus and transmit it to the signal or brain stem, with cell bodies located in the dorsal root ganglia

Answer 248

considered the father of psychology, expanded on these subjects, looking at social facilitation and social inhibition and found it depended on task difficulty

Answer 249

believed Darwin's On the Origin of Species could apply to humans and that mental ability was hereditary

Answer 250

one of the physicalists, came up with mesmerism

Answer 251

one of the physicalists, came up with phrenology, also known as the Skull Reader

Answer 252

believed memory is reconstructed and when recalled, we may embellish the memory during reconstruction, so when it's reconsolidated back into memory, it has been somewhat changed; memories aren't perfect and change over time

Answer 253

discovered by Mary Calkins, states the more exposure you have, the easier it is to remember stuff

Answer 254

involved in planning, decision making and motor control

Answer 255

based on the process of evolution and consciousness, stating consciousness wouldn’t exist if it didn’t enhance survival chances,

Answer 256

measures brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow

Answer 257

explains why people behave irrationally, states we form 2 traces of a problem in our heads, the verbatim problem and the gist problem and adults generally make decisions based on the gist problem but children make decisions based on the verbatim problem

Answer 258

looked at nerve physiology by using electrical stimulation on the skin

Answer 259

a device designed by Helmholtz to measure how fast a nerve fires

Answer 260

looks at how empathy influences pain, eg if you see someone else in pain you may feel pain

Answer 261

theory by Melzack and Wall throughout the body sending signals to the spinal cord, which acts as a gatekeeper that either opens or closes, allowing signals to the brain to be felt or not; these gates are influenced by prior experiences, emotions and attention, explaining why some injuries are more painful than others and why some people perceive pain differently

Answer 262

model by Keo-Meier and Ehrensaft (2018) who found that trans people experience better outcomes when they are supported and affirmed in their gender identity, states gender affirmation should involve respecting a person’s gender identity, supporting social transition and providing affirming care across the lifespan

Answer 263

a subsection of gender incongruence where incongruence causes distress, not an innate part of being trans, but occurs due to rejection, prejudice and lack of support

Answer 264

refers to how an individual personally experiences their gender, which may or may not align with sex assigned at birth

Answer 265

a feeling of incongruence between gender identity and sex assigned at birth, ICD version of gender dysphoria, not in the mental disorder chapter

Answer 266

if you produce something, eg handwrite your notes, you'll remember it better

Answer 267

described the audition process: sound waves enter the ear, causing the ear drum to vibrate; the vibration is then transmitted to the little bone in the ear and then the basilar membrance which stimulates specific nerves involved in pitch; the vibrations have different peaks which are detected by hair cells which stimulate nerve fibres, telling the brain about different sound frequencies

Answer 268

proposed the biopsychosocial model

Answer 269

established that the capacity of short term memory is 5 to 9

Answer 270

meta-analysis of 13 studies across Canada, Finland, Denmark, the US and the UK, found no link between MMR and autism

Answer 271

looked at 2676 people over four years, some of whom lived with chronic depression and anxiety, some with remitted depression and anxiety (it went away during the study), some with incident depression and anxiety (it started during the study) and a healthy control and looked at how depression, anxiety and pain affected each other over time; they found that when mood improves, pain improves, but pain never fully returns to healthy levels, suggesting emotional trajectory mirrors pain trajectory

Answer 272

found if the alpha male was challenged, dominant baboons were more stressed

Answer 273

what, according to Fuzzy Face Theory, we make decisions based on, a summary of the problem, eg something for sure or maybe something maybe nothing, go with certain

Answer 274

where something such as a diagnostic criteria applies to everyone, regardless of culture

Answer 275

theory by Dehaene (2014) which states consciousness is the broadcasting of information across widespread cortical networks, referred to as the global workspace, and attention networks, especially executive, may act as a gateway to that broadcast

Answer 276

receive smell information from the olfactory mucosa, there are over 350 different types for different types of smell

Answer 277

a class of steroid hormones produced during stress

Answer 278

neurotransmitter involved in learning, memory information and fast synaptic transmission

Answer 279

aligns the research question with evidence that can decide between alternatives

Answer 280

one adaptive function of communication, allowing social bonding

Answer 281

looks into how even when you are paying attention to a stream, you might still pick up on some things in another stream, eg your name, showing sometimes unattended things are processed. They played "who 6 there" in one ear and "4 goes 1" in another and found people thought they were hearing "who goes there" in one ear and "4 6 1" in the other ear

Answer 282

where someone is unaware of a skill deficit

Answer 283

where someone is aware of a skill deficit

Answer 284

where a skill requires conscious effort

Answer 285

where a skill is second nature

Answer 286

came up with normative age charts and survey methods, guiding later experimental work

Answer 287

often linked by certain characteristics and can be short-lived, enduring, structured, organised, informal or different sizes. People may join groups due to a desire for physical proximity, cooperation and shared understanding to reduce uncertainty about ourselves and reduce loneliness

Answer 288

proteins that stimulate tissue repair after injury

Answer 289

made subjective experience empirically measurable and thus arguably the first real psychological theory supported by systematic measurement and maths

Answer 290

brain folds, coded for by the LIS1, DCS, ARX and RELN genes

Answer 291

a group of feminists, led by Emily Davies, convinced Cambridge to allow women to take an IQ test to get into Cambridge as an experiment; this allowed the hackers to see where they were lacking compared to men so they could do better later, and six years later, after training themselves to do those tests, Emily and other women starting passing the tests, forcing Cambridge to open a women's college

Answer 292

a skill developed in a particular stage of cognitive development that defines that stages

Answer 293

threw marbles on the floor and asked people to report how many were there at a glance and found people could accurately go up to 4-6 items but there are individual differences across people

Answer 294

positive affect and optimism can improve long-term outcomes of having chronic or persistent pain

Answer 295

argued conformity isn’t a biological phenomenon as Zimbardo and Milgram believed, but that people engage in evil actively, knowingly and creatively out of belief and choice as engaged followers and tyranny is a product of identification-based followership

Answer 296

positive affect and optimism can improve long-term outcomes of having chronic or persistent pain

Answer 297

corroborated Voscopoulos and Lema's theory of processing pain-related information

Answer 298

came up with the Yale Approach to Communication and Persuasion whilst working for the US government to carry out systematic research on persuasion and attitude change in order to persuade the US people to support the fight against Japan and support the Cold War

Answer 299

the idea that neurones that fire together wire together

Answer 300

the idea of a continuum with extreme pleasure on one end and extreme pain on the other, not supported by research as the neural structures involved in both are different

Answer 301

a theory by Galen that the brain is the principle controller of the body, housing common sense and organising sensory input into a unified concept, believed that all memory, personality and complex thinking resides in the brain and there are three brain ventricles, containing imagination, reason and memory Heliocentric Model of the Universe - the idea that the sun is the centre of the universe, first proposed by Claudius Galenus, but wasn't taken seriously until the 16th century

Answer 302

a man who had his hippocampus removed to cure epilepsy, but developed anterograde amnesia as a result and could no longer create new memories, suggesting memory is not a singular system and the hippocampus is important for forming new memories; HM was a case study by Sue Corkin

Answer 303

believed memories aren't binary but are stored with different amounts of strengths, rejecting introspective methods of studying memory. Believed learning happens because associations are built between different things and forgetting happens via a loss of these associations. Came up with over 2300 consonant-vowel-consonant syllables and randomly assigned them to different-sized lists, discovered through this the span of STM, savings measures, list-length effects and the forgetting curve

Answer 304

first to measure nerve signals and conduction in humans, found not all electrical currents have the same speed and was the first to measure this, suggesting speeds of nerve transmission aren't instant but fluctuate

Answer 305

found nerve conduction in a frog takes roughly 25ms, revolutionising thinking about neural speed because until then people thought it was instant

Answer 306

made someone look straight at a point without moving their eyes, found we can enhance perception by paying attention, but this comes at the expense of other things, so covert attention is an evolutionary thing

Answer 307

developed by Hermann von Helmholtz in the 1800s, looked at nerve physiology by using electrical stimulation on the skin to measure how fast a nerve fires, demonstrating that biological signals are not immediate

Answer 308

won a Nobel prize for making people do cognition challenges and think out loud as they did it, then create an early computer model of it in 1981

Answer 309

dissected human bodies like Erasistratus despite it being illegal due to pollution concerns

Answer 310

states stimulating the hypothalamus triggers emotion packages such as rage or defence and emotions can be initiated centrally

Answer 311

the idea that heterosexuality is the default and all other sexual identities deviate from this, studied by Pollitt et al (2021) and Morin (1977)

Answer 312

strategies people use to make a decision using bounded rationality, selecting something satisfactory rather than optimal

Answer 313

where people upset easily, common in borderline personality disorder

Answer 314

found regular aerobic exercises is linked to better attention, memory and physical exercises and improves brain health and attention broadly

Answer 315

from 200BC onwards, based on the key principle that the world is real and knowable, focused on logic and epistemology, based in the four pramana of obtaining valid knowledge

Answer 316

involved in creating new memories

Answer 317

lived from 460-370BC, made humourism dominant, states that excess or deficiency of any of the humours leads to illness and the humours must be rebalanced to cure you

Answer 318

linked to earth, which is dry and cold, excess associated with a melancholic temperament

Answer 319

linked to air, which is hot and wet, excess associated with a sanguine temperament

Answer 320

linked to water, which is cold and wet, excess associated with a phlegmatic temperament

Answer 321

linked to fire, which is hot and dry, excess associated with a choleric temperament

Answer 322

found that social integration and strong relationships and support reduce your chances of dying more than not smoking, not heavy drinking, vaccination, cardiac rehabilitation after heart attacks, exercise, not being overweight, treating hypertension and breathing clean vs polluted air

Answer 323

the idea that you have the capacity to solve a problem in an ideal, rational way when given the right knowledge

Answer 324

developed by Carl Rogers, who developed person-centred therapy, which involves empathy and unconditional positive regard, and Abraham Maslow, who developed the hierarchy of needs, which shows how meeting basic needs enables psychological wellbeing, with a focus on self-actualisation and personal growth, leading to beliefs that mental illness occurs when someone is prevented from reaching self-actualisation due to an incongruence between the real self and the ideal self, leading to focus on conditions of worth and how unmet needs hinder personal growth, with a focus on strengths rather that deficits

Answer 325

idea by Ancient Egyptians and Mesopotanian medicine that stated the body is made of four fluids (humours) and any issues is due to the humours being out of balance

Answer 326

involved in regulating hunger and rage, integrates signals from the amygdala, hippocampus and prefrontal cortex, linking emotion and the body

Answer 327

states that what we don't attend to, we are not aware of. Typically, things like transcients capture visual attention but if resources are fully in use and there are other transcients, things may be missed

Answer 328

80% of people choose certainty of winning £3000 over an 80% chance of winning £4000, showing people prefer things when they are certain

Answer 329

people's price when selling tends to be higher than the amount they're willing to pay for it, even in riskless situations

Answer 330

72% people choose to save 200,000 people's lives for certain rather than maybe save 600,000 people's lives but 78% of people choose to maybe kill 600,000 people rather than definately kill 200,000

Answer 331

people don't take the risk of having a 50% chance of losing £10 or gaining £11, showing losses mean more than wins

Answer 332

people prefer a high probability of winning a small amount of money rather than a small probability of winning a high amount of money, but they're willing to pay more for a low probability of winning a high amount than a high probability of winning a low amount

Answer 333

70% of people choose a 20% chance of winning £4000 over a 25% chance of winning £3000, showing if there is no certainity, people prefer riskier decisions

Answer 334

took place in the Greek and Roman era; Hippocrates believed mental illness was caused by an imbalance of the four humours, which were the basis of the body, making this the first naturalistic explanation of mental illness; treatment involved diet, exercise and bloodletting

Answer 335

irritable, ambitious and quick-tempered, thought to be due to an excess of yellow bile

Answer 336

sad, analytical and withdrawn, thought to be due to an excess of black bile

Answer 337

calm, passive and slow-moving, thought to be due to an excess of phelgm

Answer 338

optimistic, social and energetic, thought to be due to an excess of blood

Answer 339

states that we access external reality through representations and the world is represented as abstract electro-chemical activity

Answer 340

moving from observed data to conclusions about unobserved states or processes

Answer 341

controls urinary accommodation and bladder contraction as dictated by the autonomic nervous system

Answer 342

body's immune response to injury or illness where the body releases chemicals that trigger the immune response; there is a link between chronic conditions and inflammation eg Crohn's disease, fibromyalgia

Answer 343

strand of cognitive psychology that states that cognition can be understood without reference to conscious phenomena rather in terms of a flow of information within an organism, using terms such as 'storage', 'retrieval', 'recoding' and 'selection' to refer to hypothetical stages of processing, which aren't necessarily conscious

Answer 344

states information is a series of Boolean yes/no choices like a computer (the neurone fires or it doesn't), used by psychologists to think about the brain's limits on information flow, influenced engineering and telephone communication

Answer 345

a group you are part of, that you aren't close to and don't identify with, whose group norms are less likely to influence your beliefs and behaviours

Answer 346

took place in the 19th and early 20th century, saw the first attempts to classify disorders by Kraepelin, introduced Freud's psychodynamic approach and behaviourism, as well as a rise in institutionalisation, which led to overcrowding and bad treatments such as early electroconvulsive therapies, insulin comas and psychosurgeries such as the lobotomy being widespread

Answer 347

area of the cerebral cortex associated with pain

Answer 348

classification system used by the UK and most of the world except the US

Answer 349

released in 1949, first version of the ICD to include a section on mental disorders, influenced heavily by psychiatric observations in Second World War veterans, leading to the diagnosis of combat stress, now combat PTSD

Answer 350

released in 1977, focused on descriptive criteria and global applicability with less focus on psychoanalysis

Answer 351

the most modern version, released in 2022, emphasises dimensional needs, cultural variation, functional impairment and reducing unnecessary pathologisation by removing transgender identities

Answer 352

a broad category of sense related to internal bodily conditions eg hunger

Answer 353

involves systematic self-observation of conscious experience under controlled conditions using experimental methods, paving the way for functionalism and behaviourism

Answer 354

the idea that you will still prefer red over yellow no matter what you think of blue

Answer 355

found that transitioning from college to uni initially reduces students' wellbeing, but having a stronger identification as a uni student improved wellbeing and we are persuaded by people we identify with, so adverts should have protagonists that can be identified with

Answer 356

studied 95,727 autistic children with older siblings, found no evidence that some children have a genetic vulnerability to autism that is triggered by MMR

Answer 357

described attention as the 'gateway to consciousness'

Answer 358

body-first approach, states perception of bodily changes crates emotions, ie we feel afraid because we notice our body trembling

Answer 359

came up with early stage-like ideas rooted in constructivist thinking; this involved large questionnaires, the 'storm and stress thesis of adolescence' and circulation reactions

Answer 360

believed children actively construct knowledge structures through action and self-correction but this is a biological process comparable to snail development; the goal was to explain mechanisms of change via schema formation and reorganisation and he did this using clinical interviews with tasks revealing underlying reasoning rather than just answers

Answer 361

found if you sleep between learning and recall, you recall better

Answer 362

how taste actually works: taste receptors are throughout the mouth and gastrointestinal tract and are adapted to absorb different tastes at different speeds to prevent poisoning and fats and proteins are broken down by digestions, at which point receptors tell the brain these were recently consumed

Answer 363

viewed symbolic representation, specifically language, as crucial for cognitive development

Answer 364

found switching tasks leads to a slower, more error-prone response and preparation helps but costs still remain

Answer 365

confirmed Hamilton's findings empirically using computer displays and found small numbers can be recognised instantly without counting, but after 4-6 items they must by counted sequentially which is much slower. The parietal cortex is involved in maintaining and rehearsing small sets and the attention scope can be measured on an EEG

Answer 366

came up with the doctrine of specific nerve energies

Answer 367

introduced the concept of hierarchical organisation in the brain, proposed that 'higher' cognitive functions inhibit more primitive areas and damage to higher areas can cause more unrestrained behaviours; for example, frontal lobe damage can lead to impulsivity or emotional outbursts, paving the way for modern views of functional networks

Answer 368

disagreed with Von Frey, believed different sensations caused different 'patterns' on nerve fibres, but was wrong

Answer 369

the smallest detectable change in a stimulus, eg the moment between before the nerve fires and the nerve firing

Answer 370

receptor targeted by dynorphins

Answer 371

studied patients who had poor understanding of speech and could speak, but nonsensically, discovered they all had damage to a specific area of the superior temporal gyrus, proposed speech is not localised in the Broca's area but is a network made up of the Broca's area (motor speech area) and the Wernicke's area (sensory speech area)

Answer 372

autistic people showed impaired disengagement of attention, linked to the temporoparietal junction, finding there is a failure to orient to one's gesture or gaze, affecting communication skills

Answer 373

looked at how ingroup members may be stigmatised by other ingroup members, which may be more hurtful than being stigmatised by other outgroup members, as you are looking to those members for connection, eg if you violate group norms, which leads to losing a source of social support and information

Answer 374

looked at how, by identifying with a group, you may receive support from ingroups, but may be stigmatised by outgroups, so it may not be healthy to openly identify with the group

Answer 375

first to argue that taste and touch are different

Answer 376

the first attempt to classify mental disorders in 1863

Answer 377

studied pop-out phenomena, where a red dot in a field of blue instantly grabs attention, regardless of how many distractors there are, so you are aware of the target but didn't attend to it through effortful searching; this demonstrates attention without consciousness, an evolutionary thing allowing people to respond to threats

Answer 378

took place in the renaissance and enlightenment period, where there was an emphasis on kindness and structured environments with early asylums focusing on humane care due to scholars revisiting Greek and Roman texts and once again believing in Hippocrates's theory of the four humours; this led to mental health being reframed as a natural, bodily or psychological issue rather than a demonic one and there were increasing beliefs that mental illness could be understood through reason, observation and empirical data and therefore treated

Answer 379

created a pain scale based on Stevens's model

Answer 380

used Neighbors's study to reduce college student drinking

Answer 381

tested the temporal validity of Broadbent's theory by repeating it in 2004

Answer 382

a philosopher who believed undivided attention was the path to virtue

Answer 383

looked at anti-Asian prejudice, did a field experiment where he travelled 10000 miles across the US in a caravan with a Chinese couple, visiting 66 caravan parks and 184 restaurants and had no refusals of service; 6 months later, he sent all of them a letter asking if they would accept Chinese people in their establishment and 92% said they wouldn't; 1% said they would and the rest where uncertain, showing that attitudes don't necessarily predict behaviour and behaviour is only part of someone's attitudes

Answer 384

when the brain responds to presentation of stimulus

Answer 385

the true meaning of dreams

Answer 386

separates frontal and parietal lobes from the temporal lobe, faciliating communication between them

Answer 387

largest ventricle in the brain, regulates the production and transport of cerebrospinal fluid

Answer 388

an idea by Galton using the bell-shaped normal distribution curve

Answer 389

looked at happily married women in an MRI machine and told them they had a 20% chance of being electric shocked. They were either alone, having their hand held by a stranger or their husband. They found people rated unpleasantness the same for the alone and stranger condition and felt most physically stressed when alone and only slightly more physically stressed in stranger condition compared with the spouse condition. They found similar MRI results, showing a correlation between strength of spousal relationships and brain activity related to emotional and behavioural threat responses; this shows social connection as a mechanism to reduce the impact of social stressors

Answer 390

loneliness and isolation increases inflammation

Answer 391

coined the term 'social brain' in the 1990s

Answer 392

believed children actively construct knowledge structures through action and self-correction but this is a biological process comparable to snail development; the goal was to explain mechanisms of change via schema formation and reorganisation and he did this using clinical interviews with tasks revealing underlying reasoning rather than just answers

Answer 393

a unit, mechanism or timescale used to explain a phenomenon and levels can complement each other, creating converging evidence

Answer 394

idea by Craik and Tulving, states deeper processing aids later memory, where one group had to say whether it was written in uppercase or lowercase letters (a graphemic task at a shallow level), another had to say whether a word rhymed with various words or not (a phonemic task at a somewhat deeper level) and the last would answer something about meaning (a semantic task at a deeper level); argued that memory works better if it's done at a higher level, but this is inaccurate

Answer 395

the transitional point between nothing and everything (the moment before the nerve fires and the nerve firing)

Answer 396

lipids derived from fatty acids that mediate vasoconstriction and dilation, pain, fever and reducing inflammation

Answer 397

it's easier to remember short lists

Answer 398

studied how social curse applies to binge drinking

Answer 399

neurosurgical procedure that involved cutting or damaging connections in the prefrontal cortex of the brain, used in the early to mid 20th century as a treatment for severe mental health conditions such as schizophrenia, depression and mania

Answer 400

the theory that certain brain functions are controlled by certain areas of the brain

Answer 401

reason by premise and argument

Answer 402

rational hypotheses that can discover everything

Answer 403

sulci between the two hemispheres

Answer 404

discovered nerve transmission in animals involved electricity by touching nerves in frogs' legs with electrically charged metal and recording responses, but believed this didn't apply to humans

Answer 405

looked at self-stigma of depression as a risk factor that negatively impacts the recovery process by reducing quality of life, increasing depression severity and lowering adherence to treatment; this differentiates between public stigma (negative attitudes held by society) and self-stigma (the belief that one is inferior or less worthy due to illness

Answer 406

led to tighter regulations for asylums and required local authorities to provide and maintain them

Answer 407

studied Swedish people born between 1993 and 2002, found that whilst autism diagnoses had risen in that time, autism symptoms hadn't

Answer 408

studied inattentional blindness

Answer 409

key in destruction of pathogens, work with T-cells

Answer 410

implemented to regulate asylums and madhouses

Answer 411

release histamine and inflammatory mediators, key in parasite defence

Answer 412

stated perception is adquate because there is lots of information out there to sample and the human sensory system has evolved to be really good at gathering information and is shaped by concepts

Answer 413

carried out research into Paired-Association Learning and the Harvard cognition department voted to grant her a PHD but the dean disagreed

Answer 414

discovered there are different receptors in the skin for different sensations, eg pain, temperature, but wasn't taken seriously

Answer 415

involves looking at glucocorticoids

Answer 416

glucocorticoids show up immediately

Answer 417

glucocorticoids show up within roughly 24-48 hours

Answer 418

glucocorticoids show up immediately

Answer 419

glucocorticoids show up show up within 10-20 minutes

Answer 420

glucocorticoids show up within 4-6 hours

Answer 421

trial-and-error problem solving, develops between ages of 0 and 2

Answer 422

attention relies on specific systems, eg filters and networks, that actively select input

Answer 423

symptoms of depression, anxiety and emotional distress contribute strongly to key long-term outcomes of persistent pain and the emotional issues have more outcomes on long-term outcomes of having chronic/persistent pain

Answer 424

created a scale for measuring how much someone likes a certain food based on Stevens's model

Answer 425

came up with gate control theory in relation to pain research

Answer 426

provided legal framework for making decisions for adults deemed to lack capacity; in 2019 it was expanded to provide certain safeguards to 16- and 17-year-olds

Answer 427

internal train of thought attention can be paid to

Answer 428

the feeling of being overwhelmed or trapped by pain

Answer 429

allowed the indefinite incarceration of those deemed 'mentally defective' without requiring a diagnosis

Answer 430

aimed to make treatment voluntary where possible and move treatments away from asylums and into communities; also the first act to include a definition of a mental disorder

Answer 431

continued focus on voluntary community-based treatment but laid out strict criteria for sectioning, allowing the involuntary detaining of anyone who poses a significant threat to their own or others' safety; it also laid out the rights and safeguards of these patients and established guardianship

Answer 432

Mesmer’s idea that applying magnets to patients could put the body’s magnetic fields back into realignment, thought was largely explained by the placebo effect

Answer 433

a structured way of analysing data, eg experiment, survey or interviews

Answer 434

a logic of enquiry that justifies the choice of method, asking questions such as what you're studying, what counts as a good answer to a research question and what counts as evidence

Answer 435

forced people to respond in sync with a rhythmically beeping tone, whether they were ready or not, showing the speed-accuracy trade-off

Answer 436

small networks within the nervous system

Answer 437

immune cells involved in inflammation

Answer 438

found the capacity of STM is 5-9

Answer 439

by Meyer (2003), suggests that the health and wellbeing inequalities faced by LGBTQ+ people may be due to stress imposed on the individual

Answer 440

by mirroring actions, they are fundamental for learning new skills through imitation, a cornerstone of how humans acquire culture and knowledge

Answer 441

evidence suggests mirror neurones involved in complex hand gestures may be linked to the evolution of spoken language, which is a crucial social tool

Answer 442

help predict what someone might do next by firing not just for the action itself, but for actions they're likely to perform in the future

Answer 443

allow us to experience another's emotions by activating the same emotional brain region we use when we feel them ourselves

Answer 444

important for social cognition, helping navigate social interactions, understand social hierarchies and recognise our place in social groups

Answer 445

tests someone has a sense of self, so the monkey is briefly anaesthetised and has paint put on his face. He is then shown a mirror to see if he tries to rub the paint off, demonstrating a sense of self. Gorillas almost always fail; chimpanzee and orangutans sometimes pass; chimpanzees raised in human conditions generally pass. This suggests chimpanzees are able to learn a concept of self depending on their environment

Answer 446

external stressors, eg covert or overt homophobia

Answer 447

internal stressors, eg internalised homophobia

Answer 448

where consciousness is distinct from bodily processes

Answer 449

discovered by Elizabeth Loftus, states post-event discussion can alter memories and repetition or retelling can incorporate embellishments as fact

Answer 450

where we overestimate how much others engage in more negative behaviours and underestimate how much others engage in positive behaviours, leading to misperceived norms

Answer 451

states there are three stores of memory

Answer 452

essentially unlimited where organisation and cueing determines access

Answer 453

studied by Sperling; large, brief and pre-attentive

Answer 454

limited capacity, maintained in consciousness by rehearsal

Answer 455

looks at four theories of pain through a modern lens

Answer 456

developed by Melzack and Wall in 1965, states there is a gate mechanism in the spinal cord’s dorsal horn which modulates pain signals before they reach the brain; C and A-delta fibres open the ‘gate’ and A-beta fibres ‘close’ the gate; psychological factors eg attention, emotion and prior experiences influence the gate’s opening and closing

Answer 457

suggests there are no dedicated pathways for pain but all sense organs can encode any sensation and the type of sensation is determined by intensity of the sensation

Answer 458

agrees with intensity theory that there aren’t dedicated pathways but each sensation has a unique pattern of impulses that the brain can interpret

Answer 459

theory by Descartes in 1600s, states there are specific dedicated pathways and receptors exist for each somatosensory modality, including pain; Bell and von Frey identified different sensory spots for touch, pain and temperature in the 1800s, suggesting there are different nerve fibres for different sensations

Answer 460

Plato argued there is a world of forms and a world of matter where thee world of forms is the perfect copy of a thing, but we only see the world of matter, which are imperfect reflections of the true object and the job of philosophers is to learn about the ideal whilst only being able to see the world of matter

Answer 461

by Daniel Simons, about half of people miss the gorilla the first time they see it

Answer 462

receptor targeted by endorphins

Answer 463

considers biological, psychological and social factors, focusing on the individual rather than symptoms by assessing social functioning and physiological state of health

Answer 464

fatty substance insulating the axon to increase the speed at which impulses propagate

Answer 465

magical or spiritual explanations that Thales of Miletus wanted to avoid

Answer 466

a common-sense belief that our perception of the world is a direct, unbiased and unfiltered reflection of reality

Answer 467

the idea that everyone is born as a blank slate and can become anything

Answer 468

Aristotle's theory that there are four causes of things

Answer 469

what made it, eg embryonic development and genetic factors

Answer 470

what its purpose is, eg to pump blood around the body

Answer 471

what something's form is, eg 4-chambered organ with valves

Answer 472

what something is made of eg muscle tissue, blood vessels

Answer 473

how much someone has a need for black and white answers; people who score low on this are more likely to believe in conspiracy theories

Answer 474

asked 3752 US students to complete an online survey about how much alcohol they consumed, descriptive norms of students' drinking behaviour and how much they identified with other students and found students' personal drinking was positively predicted by perceived norms of student drinking and the more students identified with specific resource groups, eg same-sex, same-race, the stronger the relationship was but these effects weren't big

Answer 475

used the social norms approach to reduce problematic gambling

Answer 476

the outer layer of the brain, involved in higher-order functions such as sensory perception, cognition, generations of motor commands, spatial reasoning and language

Answer 477

area of the neocortex involved in producing language

Answer 478

area of the neocortex involved in emotions

Answer 479

area of the neocortex involved in movement

Answer 480

area of the neocortex involved in pleasure

Answer 481

area of the neocortex involved in reasoning

Answer 482

area of the neocortex involved in sight

Answer 483

area of the neocortex involved in understanding language

Answer 484

where neurones fire more often

Answer 485

specialised cells for transmitting and receiving information, carrying sensory information from the body to the brain and allowing communication with muscles, glands and other neurones

Answer 486

an in accurate theory by Santiago Ramon y Cajal, states neurones are individual discrete cells that aren't fused and information only flows in one direction

Answer 487

key in destruction of bacteria and fungi

Answer 488

theorised that psychopaths notice emotional cues only if already attending to them and don't automatically monitor for these cues

Answer 489

found 60-70% of autistic people have a learning disability

Answer 490

proposed that social complexity, rather than ecological pressures, was the sole drive for exceptionally large brains in humans

Answer 491

states that reaction time increases with the number of potential alternatives, so if there is more information to process, the response will be slower

Answer 492

psycholinguist who wrote a scathing critique of behaviourism

Answer 493

the signal nociceptors pass along, often meaning pain OR perception of pain

Answer 494

neurones dedicated to alerting the brain when injury is imminent or has happened

Answer 495

neurones that reduce the pain response

Answer 496

specialised nerve endings triggered by pain as well as certain temperatures, chemicals or pressures, evolved to warn us if a situation is dangerous and has caused potential damage

Answer 497

gaps in the myelin sheath where signals regenerate

Answer 498

a specific form of intellect that Plato believed only rational souls can use

Answer 499

contains the DNA of the neurone

Answer 500

based on the idea that observations (eg there is smoke on a hill) and general rules (where there is fire there is smoke) leads to conclusions (therefore there is fire on the hill

Answer 501

type of conformity, process of doing what one is asked and required by regulations

Answer 502

a child understand that just because they can't see something, it still exists, developed at roughly 9 months

Answer 503

involved in vision

Answer 504

area of the brain involved in smelling

Answer 505

tissue at the end of the nose that begins the smelling process

Answer 506

produces myelin

Answer 507

estimated incidence of autism at 1-2%

Answer 508

this occurred due to controls and looks at making research more transparent and open to more people, led by social and cognitive psychologists; this began due to failures to replicate previous research and promotes pre-registration, open materials, detailed methods sections, collaborations and open access journals

Answer 509

Skinner's theory on how associations are maintained through reward and punishment

Answer 510

based in peripheral nerves, eg mu, delta, kappa

Answer 511

argues different colours excite and inhibit each other eg red-green, blue-yellow, black-white

Answer 512

where the optic nerves meet

Answer 513

one of three distinct brain networks for perception, involves directing information

Answer 514

a group you aren't part of, that you aren't close to and don't identify with, whose group norms are less likely to influence your beliefs and behaviours

Answer 515

unpleasant sensory and emotional experiences associated with, or resembling that which associated with, actual or potential tissue damage

Answer 516

catastrophising about how much pain something might cause, predicts chronic pain

Answer 517

part of the brainstem

Answer 518

idea by Mary Calkins, shows we learn better through association, so it's easier to learn colours if they're associated with numbers and vice-versa

Answer 519

returns the body to homeostasis after a threat has been dealt with, eg stimulates saliva production, increases bile secretion, slows breathing and heart rate

Answer 520

involved in spatial awareness and somatosensation

Answer 521

carried out a case study of Patient Tan, a patient with a severe speech impairment but no understanding difficulties, found Tan had lesions on an area of the left hemisphere, so Broca suggested this area controlled speech; it was later named Broca's area

Answer 522

pain expression and coping vary across culture based on beliefs and societal expectation on how pain should be dealt with and stigma associated with it, eg some cultures see pain as a test to be accepted and endured whereas others encourage open expression of pain and seeking of support, seeing it as something to be fixed

Answer 523

collection on neurones in the brainstem, involving voluntary movements, arousal and sensory feedback

Answer 524

the ability of the mind to refer sensory information to an external object and its cause; relates to the experimental consciousness component

Answer 525

brain area involved in autonomic function, motivated behaviour and responses to threatening stimuli

Answer 526

what we measure

Answer 527

the difference between performance and competence and how this may impact results in experiments

Answer 528

extends beyond the central nervous system to relay messages around the whole body

Answer 529

long-term pain lasting longer than six months, can cause changes in the nervous system and brain, affects roughly 20% of people worldwide

Answer 530

studied Patient GY, a blindsight patient who, when presented with an object int he blind visual field, they could guess the location better than chance allowed

Answer 531

how someone describes themselves as an individual

Answer 532

created a scale for measuring how much someone likes a certain based on Stevens's model

Answer 533

created a fake prison in the basement of Stanford University and assigned a group of previously mentally well young men to play the roles of prison guard or prisoner; the men internalised the roles with the prisoners displaying genuine trauma responses within only a few days and the experiment being stopped after six days as the guards began torturing the prisoners

Answer 534

states that all faculties of human nature are localised to certain areas of the brain and the development of the brain determines the contours of the skull, which is therefore an indicator of character and ability

Answer 535

lower pain threshold leads to activity avoidance, which leads to deconditioning, which leads to pain from decrease activity, which leads to lack of sleep, which leads to an even lower pain threshold and the cycle repeats

Answer 536

existed in the 1700s, as people began to realise the importance of the brain, leading to the development of physiological psychology, starting with understanding low-level processes to eventually explain high-order processes, looks at topics such as reflex and voluntary actions, electrical activity in the nervous system, cells in the nervous system and different types of nerves

Answer 537

Piaget stated people have schema that are assimilated unless a new situation doesn't fit within an existing schema, which leads to disequilibrium and is fixed through accommodation

Answer 538

Piaget theorised that all people go through four stages of cognitive development, each of which have their own hallmark achievement

Answer 539

occurs between age 0 and 2, involves the development of object permanence and means-ends problem solving

Answer 540

occurs between age 2 and 7, involves the development of symbolic play and language with egocentrism and centration limits; children develop imagination but struggle with theory of mind

Answer 541

occurs between age 7 and 11, involves the development of conservation, classification, seriation and reversibility

Answer 542

occurs after the age of 11, involves the development of abstract thinking, combinational reasoning and proportionality

Answer 543

parents of 152 autistic children watched videos of themselves interacting with their child twice a month for 6 months and were advised by a therapist on how to improve; 6 years later, only 46% were considered to still have 'severe' autism as opposed to 63% in a control group

Answer 544

psychiatrist who deliberately damaged or removed parts of pigeons' brains to study the effects, viewed as the founder of experimental brain science, found that movement is located in the cerebellum but there were limitations due to the size of pigeons' brains and the unsophisticated tools used, but challenged the idea of localisation and suggested the brain is interconnected

Answer 545

lived in 400BC, came up with extramission theory

Answer 546

involve recording animals, in the case of the Velvet Monkeys, when the monkeys heard the playbacks, they behaved in the same way even in the absence of a predator

Answer 547

Galen's idea of spirit which mediates between the humours and the body's functions (a precursor to neurotransmission), stated there was a psychic pneuma in the brain processing sensory information and unbalanced humours disrupted it, which could have an impact on clarity and accuracy of sensory perception

Answer 548

where something can grab attention without consciousness, an evolutionary thing allowing us to respond to threats

Answer 549

built on Shannon and Weaver's research by measuring reaction time to study the speed of thought, stated reaction time doesn't depend just on physical stimulus but also on expectation and information load

Answer 550

came up with the covert orienting paradigm using the Posner test

Answer 551

came up with the analogy that attention is to consciousness what DNA is to life, because consciousness is more than attention but attention is crucial to its study

Answer 552

where an arrow points to where, 80% of the time, an image will appear later

Answer 553

membrane where neurotransmitters are reabsorbed

Answer 554

looks at various factors impacting development

Answer 555

part of the brain involved in personality, decision-making and social behaviour

Answer 556

releases neurotransmitters when depolarised by action potential

Answer 557

involved in hearing

Answer 558

involved in precise movement

Answer 559

involved in the receipt and processing of sensory information

Answer 560

involved in sight

Answer 561

looks at proximal processes as engines of development observed over time

Answer 562

looks at demand, resource and force characteristics such as temperament and motivation, a combination of genetic factors and environmental interactions until this point

Answer 563

looks at the nested systems where proximal processes occur and the person's contributions to the process occurring

Answer 564

looks at how all this changes over time

Answer 565

the four Buddhist principles that allow the obtaining of valid knowledge

Answer 566

non-verbal identified perception caused by direct contact between sense organs and objects

Answer 567

word/speech testimony of reliable sources

Answer 568

comparison of proof

Answer 569

ancient Buddhist principle of valid knowledge

Answer 570

what we're currently unaware of at the current moment, but could become aware of

Answer 571

recorded rate

Answer 572

remember the stuff presented first because there's time to rehearse and consolidate

Answer 573

talking to yourself

Answer 574

where old memories mess with new memories

Answer 575

founded by Sigmund Freud, states mental illness arises from unconscious conflicts, early childhood experiences and internal conflict of the self, with symptoms being expressions of hidden struggles as defence mechanisms protect the ego; treatments include free association and dream analysis

Answer 576

social isolation leads to anxiety, anger, fear and panic, which leads to increased perception of pain, which leads to depression, which leads to low mood, which leads to more social isolation and the cycle repeats

Answer 577

2% of all people in the UK have a learning disability

Answer 578

the idea that people use shortcuts or heuristics to make decisions, selecting something satisfactory rather than optimal

Answer 579

people ignore evidence in light of eyewitness testimony. If 85% of taxis are green and 15% are blue and an eyewitness who is accurate 80% says they saw a blue taxi, there's a 41% chance the taxi is blue, but people overestimate this

Answer 580

where people underestimate evidence, for example, if choosing poker chips from a bag and you get 8 red chips and 4 blue chips and you know the bag either has 700 blue and 300 red chips or 700 red and 300 blue chips, the probability is not 50:50

Answer 581

there are three doors and one has a prize behind it; after choosing one, the host opens an empty door and offers you to change to the remaining door; there is a 2 in 3 chance it's behind the other door and a 1 in 3 chance it's behind your door

Answer 582

when making decisions like buying a birthday present, options are technically unlimited so we find the first 'good enough' thing that meets the criteria and go with it without optimising the decision, discovered Simon (1957)

Answer 583

memory store for actions or skills, such as touch-typing. These memories can be recalled without conscious awareness or much effort, and are often hard to explain to someone else

Answer 584

where you deliberately learn stuff to remember it, like in lab studies of memory

Answer 585

proven by amnesiac patients like Clive Wearing and Henry Molaison who, if they were asked to memorise a list, wouldn't be able to but if prompted by starting letters could guess better than would be allowed by chance

Answer 586

where there is a constant ration between two quantities, such that the overall relationship doesn't change, understanding of this develops after age 11

Answer 587

sense of where the body is in space

Answer 588

Pharoah Psammetichus believed if children were raised never hearing language, they would start talking Egyptian, which he believed was the innate language of all people. He sent two babies to live with a herdsman who was told never to let them hear any language, and eventually, they started saying the word ‘becos’, a Phrygian word for bread

Answer 589

the scientific study of relationships between physical stimuli (eg temperature, light, sound waves) and the sensations and perceptions they produce (hot/cold, brightness, loudness) in order to manipulate the stimulus and measure the effect or impression

Answer 590

states cell organisms act to achieve ends and instincts channel emotions into goal-directed actions and social life shapes habits and sentiments

Answer 591

the quality/property that we experience, eg the redness of red

Answer 592

analysing the rationality of something

Answer 593

what humans have as well as sensitive and vegetative souls, allows them to think about and reflect on things, uses intellect known as nous and reasons known as logos

Answer 594

a form of emotional regulation where someone reframes a situation in order to reduce anxiety, eg seeing a presentation as an opportunity to share ideas rather than as a threat

Answer 595

reciting things you've seen before

Answer 596

Aristotle's description of memories

Answer 597

the more recent the easier it is to remember

Answer 598

where neurotransmitters are reabsorbed

Answer 599

selecting things you've seen before, leaving out those you haven't

Answer 600

making sense of electrical activity from sensory input

Answer 601

pain that comes and goes

Answer 602

where specific actions elicit specific responses

Answer 603

an STM control process that involves transferring knowledge from STM to LTM

Answer 604

used social norms approach to increase sun protective behaviours

Answer 605

looked at how menstrural stigma led to policy resistance and silence around endometriosis and late diagnosis, stated interventions needed to correct social norm perceptions around menstruating and address society

Answer 606

consistency

Answer 607

where you have to recreate a memory, eg drawing a picture you saw or retelling a story you heard

Answer 608

the clear assumption in psychology and cognitive science that information is 'represented' in your nervous system

Answer 609

led by Brian Nosek at the Centre for Open Science, involved a large-scale product involving 270 psychologists replicating 100 studies from 2008 related to social psychology, working with the creators of the original papers and found only 36% had significant findings compared with 97% of the original ones

Answer 610

idea by Clark Hull, equals habit strength multiplied by drive strength

Answer 611

the status of a neurone when it isn't be stimulated, when the neurone is negatively charged whilst the ions on the outside are positively charged

Answer 612

an STM control process that transfers knowledge from LTM to STM

Answer 613

where new knowledge messes with old memories

Answer 614

'token' mental representations with semantic properties which are either abstract or concrete

Answer 615

internal representation of external objects

Answer 616

the idea that as your sample size gets bigger, the average will get closer to the mean

Answer 617

states that the focus of attention is what the fovea is currently looking at

Answer 618

information in or around the fovea

Answer 619

where we look in one direction but attend to something else, taking roughly 50ms to shift from overt to covert attention, a sixth of normal speed

Answer 620

everything else

Answer 621

a method of drawing conclusions about cognitive processes from an observed brain activation

Answer 622

the ability to understand that actions can be reversed

Answer 623

discovered mirror neurones in monkeys fire up in the premotor cortex when grasping things or observing another monkey grasping things. This suggests mirror neurones are a neural basis for imitations and learning, allowing the processing of what others are doing as well as what you're doing without much differences in the process. This suggests a direct neural mechanism for action understanding, bridging perception and social learning, suggesting this is an important process to understand others' actions and intentions

Answer 624

found strong correlations between group size and brain size, explaining evolution of cognitively demanding social behaviours, found comparative evidence across species and found it fitted with all primates' extended juvenile periods, not just those who don't have high culture and social learning because of their extended juvenile periods

Answer 625

found when neurotypical children are taught to include autistic peers, there was more positive relationships and less stigma and social inclusion

Answer 626

part of the brain involved in the dopamine system

Answer 627

found at 787% exponential increase in the prevalence of autism diagnoses between 1998 and 2018

Answer 628

suggested autism diagnoses are on the rise due to ever-wider assessment boundaries

Answer 629

an early branch of empirical philosophy, focused on systematic enumeration and rational examination, seeks liberation from suffering through discriminative knowledge and focuses on the principles of prakriti and purusa

Answer 630

the interaction of material nature, which leads to, in collaboration with sensual information, the sensory experience

Answer 631

the senses, viewed as instruments of the mind, distinct from pure consciousness

Answer 632

cross-sectional study exploring the relationship between two measures of social interaction and mental health outcome sand found that identification, rather than contact with, groups was a better predictor of mental health outcomes, eg if they identified with other members of the group, were pleased to be part of the group, had strong ties with other members of the group and saw themselves as a member of the group. Identification with groups benefit social support (both offering and accepting), esteem, sense of control, meaning in life, reduced loneliness and an obligation to stay healthy to help the group achieve its goals

Answer 633

used Camillo's technique but argued the neurones were individual discrete cells that aren't fused and information only flows in one direction, also discovered microcircuits

Answer 634

defined the stress response as an adaptive process, beginning with a predictable or unpredictable stressor. When one occurs, the endocrine system kicks in to mobilise energy by releasing hormones, leading to the fight or flight response

Answer 635

followed wild groups of baboons for a long period of time all day everyday collecting data on social life, aggression and mating and collecting hormone samples from faeces or urine to measure stress, recording what they do, where they go and the weather. They found the higher the baboons ranked, the less stressed they were, and the more socially connected the baboons were, the less stressed they were

Answer 636

proportion of original learning effort saved at relearning

Answer 637

how support is given within the ZPD

Answer 638

where lots of support is given early on, then less as we encourage the child to be independent

Answer 639

explicit support, where the type of support the child is given is explained to them

Answer 640

where we model behaviour for a child to copy

Answer 641

tested two factory theory by giving participants either adrenaline to increase arousal or a placebo then placed them with confederates thought to have received the same injection who either acted excited or scared; people then identified the feeling caused by the injection as either excitement or anger depending on which group they were with

Answer 642

states emotions are a result of a two-step process: a stimulus leads to psychological arousal, eg increased heart rate, then you use cognition to develop a cogntiive label ofr that based on environmetnal cues, ie you recognise something's scary before you feel scared Secondary Auditory Area - involved in hearing

Answer 643

a word psychologists use to describe a mental framework in which you file all knowledge about certain situations. For example, if you apply concept formation to dentist, you might categorise it as occupation, but your dentist schema would include everything you associate with the dentist. Everyone’s schemata are different

Answer 644

involved in general movement and processing certain sensory inputs

Answer 645

involved in sight

Answer 646

relay neurones that receive input from first order neurones and relay them to the thalamus, cell bodies are in the brain

Answer 647

where people have a preference over where their attention is

Answer 648

the physical stimulation of the sensory apparatus eg effect of light on the retina, effect of vibration on the eardrum and effect of surface pressure on the skin

Answer 649

what animals have as well as vegetative souls, allowing them to sense things

Answer 650

impressions on the soul captured by the sense organs

Answer 651

Broadbent's idea, filters sensory information based on inflexible physical characteristics whilst all other input remains in the buffer

Answer 652

external objects attention can be paid to

Answer 653

a word psychologists use to describe a mental framework in which you file all knowledge about certain situations. For example, if you apply concept formation to dentist, you might categorise it as occupation, but your dentist schema would include everything you associate with the dentist. Everyone’s schemata are different

Answer 654

stores raw auditory data

Answer 655

stores raw tactile data

Answer 656

stores raw visual data

Answer 657

where there is a chain of people reproducing something

Answer 658

the ability to sort objects or situations by characteristic

Answer 659

came up with information theory following the Second World War, influenced engineering and telephone communication

Answer 660

defined social norms as customs, traditions, standards, rules, values, fashions and all other criteria of conduct which are standardised as a consequence of the contact of individuals

Answer 661

showed participants the autokinetic effect and asked participants how far they thought the beam of light moved on their own, in a group and then on their own again and found even then, they continued to follow the group norm, demonstrating informational social influence and how social norms can be internalised even when other's aren't there

Answer 662

fatigue, low mood, withdrawal and pain, occurs when the immune system is activated

Answer 663

came up with the idea of action potential and how neurones fire electrically

Answer 664

built on Hodgin and Huxley's theory and came up with the idea of chemical transmission at synapses

Answer 665

sensory and motor skills can work in parallel but central workspace processes are serial; there is a cognitive bottleneck linked to consciousness

Answer 666

first described satisficing and bounded rationality

Answer 667

studied inattentional blindness

Answer 668

where rehearsal can happen eg memorising lists

Answer 669

came up with affect heuristic, which states quick emotional responses guide decisions more than long term thinking

Answer 670

theory by Jenkins and Dallenbach which states if you sleep between learning and recall, you recall better

Answer 671

found a strong relationship between socioeconomic status and disease risk, thus impacting survival and differentiated between stress-dominant and stress-subordinate species

Answer 672

happen 3-5 times a second as perception of the visual world is made by amalgamating visual snapshots and knowledge about our environment, but limits on how we encode the information, using the eye means that we actually see everything a lot more fuzzy than what we actually perceive, with only a small window of good quality vision

Answer 673

vision shuts down in between soccadic eye movements for an average of 40ms each time, prevents information from coming too fast, so motion blur is suppressed, travels up to 900 visual degrees per second during a soccade (280mph), allows us to perceive a more stable world but a person looking in the mirror cannot see their own eyes move due to this

Answer 674

states the neocortex is associated with higher cognitive functions due to intense evolutionary pressures from social demands; this takes the evolutionary perspective that brains have evolved to manage social information; complex social lives mean tracking relationships, anticipating others' needs and cooperating. Social brain theory states that the cognitive load of managing a complex social network drives the evolution of increasing brain size and specialised social cognition. The more socially complex the environment you live in is, the larger your brain must be to manage this. This therefore allows us to understand intention, emotion and expression of others and facilitates optimal interaction, meaning evolution has fine-tuned our brain to operating is social settings, therefore aiding survival in social environments

Answer 675

states individuals have an innate drive to accurately evaluate their opinions and abilities so gauge themselves by comparing themselves to others

Answer 676

comparing themselves to those worse off, for self-enhancement or mood boost

Answer 677

comparing themselves to those better off, for inspiration

Answer 678

the idea that social connections and integration has a positive impact on mental health

Answer 679

binary opposition to social cure, looks at how and why some groups may not be good

Answer 680

where performances increases in the presence of others, often occurs with well-practised skills, eg bike-riding, marathon running

Answer 681

where performance increases because an audience is watching you

Answer 682

where performance increases because someone else is doing the same task next to you

Answer 683

focuses on which groups someone is a part of

Answer 684

combination of social identity theory and self-categorisation theory

Answer 685

focuses on the premise that group memberships are important for wellbeing

Answer 686

suggests a person has a personal identity and a social identity, and the social identity is a subsection of the personal identity and is an important part of how someone identifies themselves. A person's group memberships affects their thoughts behaviours and beliefs, and are a part of oneself and affects how they perceive people who share the group identity and those who don't. At any one time, one group is salient, so we perceive people in that group as ingroup and others as outgroup, so we are more likely to listen to them and be persuaded by them, give them help, accept help from them and trust them. Group salience is dynamic and fluid and who is ingroup or outgrup depends on which group is currently salient

Answer 687

the effects that other people can have on our thoughts, feelings and behaviours

Answer 688

where presence of others makes you perform worse, often occurs with less well-practised skills

Answer 689

theory by Gladys Jolly stating that the complexities of social life were the primary evolutionary pressure leading to the development of advanced intelligence and larger brains in primates, suggesting that cognitive abilities, such as tracking relationships and predicting behaviour arose to manage social challenges

Answer 690

a major part of social influence, important as it guides behaviour by outlining what is acceptable or not in certain contexts, and when we are members of groups, we are influenced by their norms; people who identify strongly with a group are more likely to act in accordance with group norms

Answer 691

behavioural norms

Answer 692

how accepted a behaviour is

Answer 693

a theory where you correct misconceived norms in order to influence people's behaviour in a positive direction, based on pluralistic ignorance theory, attribution error theory, social comparison theory, social identity theory and comparison. This involves carrying out baseline data collection, where you ask participants to answer questions about their behaviour and attitudes and ask them to make estimations of the behaviour or attitudes of other groups; there is then an intervention where misconceptions are corrected, for example, participants compare their answers

Answer 694

scientific study of the interplay between social interaction, social structure and human thoughts, feelings and behaviours, encompassing components such as attitudes, beliefs, emotions and interpersonal relationships with institutionalised domains such as work and experience

Answer 695

looks at what has happened around a person to cause distress, believing mental health is influenced by culture, social norms, family and environment, with stigma, poverty and discrimination as risk factors; treatments include community interventions and cultural competence, looking at how society and culture shape mental health

Answer 696

where someone has to repeat a message they are told to pay attention to

Answer 697

a theory by William James (1890) that identity depends on recognition and relationships with others and emotions eg envy, pride, love, ambition, are driven by the social world

Answer 698

transmembrane protein allowing sodium ions in and out of cells

Answer 699

states emotional signals, known as somatic markers, arise from the body, guide and influence decision-making, especially under uncertainty, often unconsciously

Answer 700

controls voluntary movement

Answer 701

for 9 items, reaction time is 415ms, but accuracy rate is 60%; to achieve 95% accuracy, reaction time becomes 800ms

Answer 702

receives and transmits information to and from the nervous system

Answer 703

nerve tract in the spinal cord that nociception signals travel up

Answer 704

convinced 40 previously mentally well men to deliver fatal electric shocks to an innocent peer; all continued to a deadly shock level but 26 continued to 450V, the highest level, despite being visible distressed, but continued to obey authority

Answer 705

came up with the idea of nominal, ordinary, interval and ratio data, created a method for measuring sensation by having a person choose a number to represet ints intensity resulting in a scale

Answer 706

built on Donders's theory and came up with the additive factors method, where he assumed that reaction time is the sum of independent stages and manipulating variables, you could localise where in processing the effect occurred

Answer 707

looked at how, by identifying with a group, you may receive support from ingroups but may be stigmatised by outgroups, so it may not be healthy to openly identify with the group

Answer 708

stated that something that weighs 10kg may not necessarily feel like it weighs 10kg, because perceived intensity generally increases by power, but we must also allow for individual difference, tested this by getting participants to assign numerical values to the intensity of stimuli

Answer 709

an idea of an infinity inside your skin holding all sensory inputs, which includes thoughts and dreams

Answer 710

states the years between 11 and 19 are characterised by high stress, emotional and behavioural changes

Answer 711

where male mammals fight for dominance ranks, demonstrating that maintaining a high rank can be stressful due to constant challenge for position

Answer 712

where lower ranks receive aggression leading to constant anxiety or stress

Answer 713

brain structure involved in stress response and anxiety

Answer 714

the most cited empirical paper in psychology, neuroimaging found that the dorsal ACC is active in cognitive conflict but the ventral ACC is active in emotional conflict

Answer 715

the first school of psychology, developed by Wundt, focused on identifying elements of consciousness and defining clear rules under which they are combined to form mental structures, leading to introspection, appeared out of the upheaval and instability in 19th century Germany

Answer 716

found that sometimes the dimensions in Keastle’s sexual identity theory appeared incompatible, eg men who occasionally have sex with men may still see themselves as straight

Answer 717

refers to who someone is romantically, emotionally or sexually attracted to

Answer 718

theory by Keastle (2019)

Answer 719

who we report romantic or sexual attraction toward

Answer 720

how we behaviour romantically or sexually toward others

Answer 721

the label or category you define yourself with

Answer 722

found of psychoanalysis, distinguished between conscious, preconscious and unconscious

Answer 723

the idea that Darwin's theories can be applied to humans and social and cognitive development

Answer 724

a method by Donders for measuring reaction times of increasing complexity

Answer 725

where you respond differently to two of each stimuli, eg deciding which side of the road to be on for the bus

Answer 726

where you respond to one stimulus but withhold another, eg ignoring the wrong bus

Answer 727

where one stimulus has one response, eg identifying which bus you see

Answer 728

carried out a case study on Patient HM

Answer 729

brain grooves, coded for by the LIS1, DCX, ARX and RELN genes

Answer 730

an internalisation of prohibitions that we have acquired through socialisation

Answer 731

controls motor function as dictated by the autonomic nervous system

Answer 732

took place in early history, when mental illness was seen as supernatural and resulting from someone either being possessed or punished by God; treatments involved rituals, exorcisms and trephination due to the key idea that illness could be explained by spiritual forces, not biology

Answer 733

states that if two premises are true, the conclusion must be true eg if premise one is that all things that emit light can be seen and the second is fire emits light, the conclusion would be fire can be seen

Answer 734

activates the body for fight or flight eg increases heart rate and breathing rate, inhibits saliva production, slows digestion

Answer 735

stimulates the release of neurotransmitters when the electrical signal reaches them

Answer 736

store neurotransmitters to be released across the synapse

Answer 737

found brief daily mindfulness sessions reduces distractability before studying and even novices showed improved attention, reduced stress and better mood after short training

Answer 738

adaptive cells that kill infected cells, work with macrophages, providing specific, long-lasting immunity

Answer 739

concrete tool or procedure, eg Likert scale, fMRI, cognitive task

Answer 740

when a second tasks appears during the reaction time of the first, response to the second is delayed, even if it uses different senses or hands

Answer 741

involved in auditory processing, language and memory

Answer 742

crucial for disengagement of attention

Answer 743

grey matter structure involved in relaying motor and sensory information, motivation and consciousness

Answer 744

believed that all natural phenomena can be discovered by natural hypotheses that reference natural process

Answer 745

looked at mental feeling and found mental defeat is a strong predictor of suicidality, which is twice as high in people with chronic pain, beyond depression and pain, highlights the need to assess psychological responses to pain, not just pain intensity

Answer 746

a paper by William Preyer, a systematic infant diary method with schedules and methods

Answer 747

sense of heat and cold

Answer 748

where the same items on the same tests are interpreted with different theories and claims

Answer 749

where someone has a sense of self and understands that other individuals have minds and beliefs that may differ from yours

Answer 750

ventricle between the two thalami, third biggest after the two lateral ventricles

Answer 751

proposed trichormatic theory, based on humans having three different types of cones to detect different colours

Answer 752

claimed attention was discovered by Wundt, who differentiated between unconscious and conscious processes

Answer 753

processes accessible via introspection

Answer 754

physiological processes

Answer 755

what someone can currently do unaided

Answer 756

what someone currently cannot do

Answer 757

uses weak electrical current through electrodes on the scalp to alter neural activity

Answer 758

uses magnetic fields to stimulate neurones in the brain

Answer 759

recognises brain development is not a child's fault and trauma shapes behaviour, not character, so emotional regulation should be taught, not assumed, and safety and relationships are the foundation for learning; the goal is for more awareness than compassion and acknowledges that fight may look like aggression and shouting, flight may look like avoidance and leaving the room, freeze may look like shutting down and being silent and fawning may look like overcompliance

Answer 760

built on Gray and Wedderburn's research, looking at why sometimes unattended things are processed, stated the sensory register filters depending on task demands, eg physical cues, syllabic pattern and specific words, moving on to analysing individual words, grammatical structure and meaning, which means sometimes unattended items leak through the filter as they are processed, reaching the threshold of conscious awareness

Answer 761

involved drilling a hole into the skull to let out evil forces

Answer 762

believed to be the first social psychology experiment, found that racing against each other rather than the clock alone increased cyclists' speeds and found children reeled in a fishing rod together when in the presence of others

Answer 763

found social support decreases pain and outcomes associated with pain

Answer 764

regressed experience and desires that can become conscious by passing through the preconscious via the superego

Answer 765

measure of happiness and satisfaction

Answer 766

group of neurones in the midbrain involved in dopamine pathways

Answer 767

the exact problem, what children make decisions based off of

Answer 768

separates the two halves of the cerebellum, allowing communication between them

Answer 769

came up with the fear avoidance model

Answer 770

ancient Buddhist principle of discriminative knowledge, which allows liberation from suffering

Answer 771

what plants have, involves responding to things

Answer 772

a theory by Avicenna which states that cognitive faculties are within the sensory soul, which is located in the brain's three ventricles and its job is to process external perceptions into meaningful understanding, challenging humour theory by stating that the brain is actually carrying out processes

Answer 773

Wundt stated that experimental methods can only study outcomes, not internal processes, so there need to be a deeper way to access minds, which is volkerpsychologie. This involved studying the collective mind through cultural products such as language, myth, customs, law and how these internal processes are shaped; this spread around the world but was sidelined as too abstract and anecdotal

Answer 774

came up with a theory of processing pain, stating that experiencing pain isn't a singular process involving a singular nerve, but is composed of four different processes

Answer 775

first stage in pain processing, where tissue damage is turned into signals picked up by nociceptors which release certain neurotransmitters which generate action potentials

Answer 776

second stage in pain processing, process of sending a signal to the brain, which travels through the peripheral nerve, up the spinal cord and to the brain

Answer 777

third stage in pain processing, where the signal may be amplified or reduced based on factors such as stress, attention, prior experiences and emotions, explaining why pain may feel different for different people at different times; this is linked to the autonomic nervous system

Answer 778

last stage in pain processing, where the brain creates the experience of pain, involving nociception-facilitating and nociception-inhibiting neurones

Answer 779

EEGs found warning signals produced 'contingent negative variation'

Answer 780

found deficits in orientation in people with schizophrenia similar to shoe seen in people with brain damage to left parietal areas during a person's first psychotic break, but in later psychotic breaks these deficits broaden, leading to strong executive attention problems. Chronic patients have worse conflict resolution than people with BPD but better orienting abilities and become overwhelmed and confused in social settings faster than neurodivergent people

Answer 781

found when neurotypical children are taught to include autistic peers, there are more positive relationships and less stigma and social exclusion

Answer 782

argued against these ideas of attention and consciousness, stating it wasn't reliable enough for science

Answer 783

corroborated Viaeyen and Linton's fear avoidance model

Answer 784

studied focused and selective auditory attention by presenting two signals in rapid succession, known as the Psychological Refractory Period (PRP) Paradigm. Participants reacted quickly to both, but reaction time to the second stimulus depended on how close to the first stimulus; the closer the presentation, the slower the reaction time. Wundt described this as a bottleneck because processing of one stimulus must be completed before the processing of another stimulus can begin; this is good evidence for a central limit on human processing capacity

Answer 785

studied epilepsy patients by performing electrical stimulation directly to the brain whilst the patient was awake to see if that evoke a seizure, allowing him to validate localisation theory and create the cortical homunculus

Answer 786

the father of psychology, came up with structuralism and introspection

Answer 787

one of Wundt’s American students, suggested introspection is really retrospection because consciousness is an ever-flowing stream, merged Wundt and Darwin’s ideas to come up with functionalism, described attention as taking possession by the mind, in clear vivid form, one of multiple trains of thought, implying withdrawal from some things in order to deal effectively with others; recognised two domains of thought: attention to external objects and internal trains of thought

Answer 788

introduced the idea of the purposive organism, also recognised that sympathetic activation mobilises the body for action and parasympathetic action restores balance

Answer 789

expanded on Darwin's diary about his son and began keeping infant and child diaries as systematic records, generating data, which later led to The Mind of the Child

Answer 790

found chimpanzees had 40 different types of tool use and tool use varied depending on where they lived. This is an indication of social learning theory. There is a correlation between life span and brain complexity -the longer the lifespan, in particular juvenile and infancy periods, the more time the primate has to learn and the more complex their brain is

Answer 791

took place in the middle ages, saw a return to religious interpretations of mental health, focusing on sin and witchcraft because mental illness was seen as possession or punishment from God for moral weakness, with the church playing a major role in what counted as madness, sin or evil; there were widespread witchhunts and other treatments included exorcisms, prayers, confessions and ritual purification; unusual behaviours, seizures, hallucinations, depression or outbursts were all seen as evidence of witchcraft or a pact with the devil, with elderly, poor, isoalted or otherwise socially marginalised women being at greatest risk of being accused

Answer 792

found stress already began leading up to the takeover, but were most stressed when it was happening or immediately afterwards, though found no relationship between female rank and stress, finding their stress was more linked to specific events

Answer 793

a temporary store where contents can be used, processed or transformed; requires attention control and there are separate systems for visual and verbal information; there isn't much interference between them but attentional control is shared

Answer 794

developed by Havland, Janis and Kelley, looks at three factors involved in persuasion

Answer 795

if people can identify with the communicator or believe the communicator is credible, they are more likely to be persuaded

Answer 796

this involves looking at the ideal amount of repetition of a message and how fear-based it should be

Answer 797

this involves looking at whether certain audiences are easier to convert than others and which types of audiences should be a priority to convert in order to make the biggest difference

Answer 798

states performance improves with arousal until an optimal point, then decreases in symmetry

Answer 799

a Buddhist theory from 500-400BC, states that what we see is shaped by karmic imprints and mental formations and led to the idea of storehouse consciousness

Answer 800

found 15% of people believe humans have made contact with aliens and this fact has been deliberately hidden from the public, 11% believe global warming is a hoax and 11% believe a QAnon conspiracy that a secret group of Satan-worshipping paedophiles have taken control of the US government and mainstream US media

Answer 801

came up with drive theory, which states that arousal increases in the presence of others, affecting performance of the dominant response (where this is something you are used to); if the dominant response is correct and you're used to doing the task, social facilitation happens, but if it's incorrect and you're not used to doing the task, social inhibition happens

Answer 802

represents what a child can, at one point in time, do, with the help of someone or something else, in between the too-easy and too-hard zone; within the ZPD, learning can exceed development, so with the right support children can learn beyond their developmental age

Understanding the Self Flashcards

(840 cards)