Unit 1 - Research methodology Flashcards

Question

What is **secondary data**?

Answer 1

* Secondary data are based on the **findings of other people’s** **research** and found in reports, records or statistical information that were gathered and recorded by someone else. * Secondary data tend to be readily available, are usually less expensive to obtain and can be analyzed in less time. * However, because such data were collected for a different purpose, they must be scrutinized well to find the relevant information.

Answer 2

* Journal articles * Books * Case studies * Articles

Answer 3

**Advantages** * Ease of access - information is readily available e.g. internet * Low cost or free * Time-saving - e.g. google search * Large sample size **Disadvantages** * Not specific to your needs - information was collected in the past for another reason * Lack of control over data quality - reliability and validity of data * Biasness - data collected by someone else than you, typically the data is biased in favour of the person who gathered it * Out of date

Answer 4

* Qualitative data is **subjective** data that comes from research that collects facts and information regarding **people’s beliefs, feelings, attitudes and opinions to gain insight into the area.**

Answer 5

* Observations * Interviews * Case studies

Answer 6

* **Subjective data** can provide words and images to help us understand more about the ‘why’ and ‘how’ of a situation and give examples to fill in the details. * **Qualitative** **methodologies** are useful when you want to: * Compare people’s opinions or ideas * Illustrate the positive and negative effects of something * Present arguments for and against something * Support quantitative data studies **NOTE: Qualitative data is used to support quantitative data findings**

Answer 7

* Quantitative data is **objective** **data** that come from research that collects facts in the form of **numerical data**, which can then be analyzed using counting, measuring and graphing.

Answer 8

* Questionnaires * Surveys * Experiments

Answer 9

* **Objective data** can provide a good outline of ‘what’ is happening in a situation. It is **more objective and reliable**, and subject to less bias than qualitative research. * **Quantitative methodologies** are useful when you want to: * Show percentages or ratios * Compare numbers in text * Visually represent the amounts or levels of something in tables or graphs **NOTE: Qualitative data is used to support quantitative data findings**

Answer 10

**DPIG or Digital PIG** * Digital * Print * Individual * Group

Answer 11

*** Individuals and groups** refer to the people and organizations from which researchers can obtain their primary data, but also gain background secondary data for their literature review. * **Individuals** can be contacted through personal contacts or connections, industry contact, experts or specialists such as neighbors or doctors. * **Groups** can be from government, non-government or community organisations such as Family and Community Services, Barnardos or the Lions Club. The types of data obtained from individuals and groups can vary.

Answer 12

* **Print** sources such as journals, textbooks, magazines, newspapers, pamphlets and resource sheets can support the findings of researchers. * **Digital** sources such as computer programs, the internet, search engines, television programs, radio, films, documentaries, cd’s, dvd’s, podcasts, reliable blogs, webcasts, video clips and e-books, can be used to obtain key findings.

Answer 13

**Advantages** * Collect first hand data * Networking possibilities * Easy to collect both qualitative and quantitative data * Specialised expert opinions * Researcher is able to clarify issues or questions face to face * Researcher has complete control over the data being collected **Disadvantages** * Depends on willingness to help and time available * May be biased * Misinterpreted responses * Wrong sample group * Time consuming * Hard to get back distributed information * Possible cost to access individuals **Note** - Individual are a source of primary data and their information is collected through surveys, case studies, observations and interviews

Answer 14

**Advantages** * Wide range of knowledge and skills * Specialists in area or group * Collect first hand * Networking possibilities * Can save time by investigating a large number of people e.g. Universities **Disadvantages** * Biased/subjective opinions * Not a true reflection of entire population * Difficult to access various organisation * Time consuming collecting data * Lack of willingness to help * Possible cost to access group **Note** - Groups can be primary data – through surveys, case studies, observations and interviews Groups can be Secondary data – from pamphlets and brochures from the group

Answer 15

**Advantages** * Wide range of resources available on a range of subjects in a range of styles * Easily accessible due to wide range of sources available * Large quantity of the different types of sources (reproducibility) * Sustainable source (use over and over again) **Disadvantages** * May be out-of-date * Resources may not be specific (general) * Need space to store and use * Accuracy of information * Can be difficult to find **Note** - Print data is secondary data– all published information already researched

Answer 16

**Advantages** * Up to date information * Wide range of sources * Easy access * Overcomes problems of distance * Large quantities of information can be obtained **Disadvantages** * Time and cost accessing technology * Validating information source, unreliable (poor quality control and anonymous contributors) * Requires skills to access technology **Note** - Digital data is Primary data – through surveys, case studies, observations and interviews Secondary data – from pamphlets and brochures from the group

Answer 17

* It is extremely important to collect data from a variety of sources, in order to provide **greater perspective on your research topic**. If a researcher were to use data from only one source, it would be difficult for them to reflect the range of views and opinions that exist with regard to the topic. * **Example** - Secondary data from print and electronic sources is easily accessible and can provide a range of opinions on a topic; however, these opinions might be out of date and might not reflect current views. * **Example** - Primary data collected from people and/or organisations provides current information on a topic; however, it can also be biased, because the people or organisations surveyed might have one-sided views on the topic. * Using both secondary and primary data sources will enable you to collect a **range of views and opinions** on your research topic and **represent the overall picture** rather than just one particular view

Answer 18

* **Reliability** is the **consistency** of measurement. * The research is reliable, if it were to be **repeated under similar conditions** with the same subjects, the researcher would still obtain similar results. * By achieving reliability an **accurate true representation** **of the population** being studied is achieved.

Answer 19

* **Example** - A researcher is conducting a study on physical activity rates amongst teenagers in Australia. The researcher has found a similar research on this chosen topic. Once the researcher conducted their own study, they found that they had similar results to that of the secondary source. Therefore, reliability is achieved through the consistency of results.

Answer 20

* **Validity** refers to the **accuracy** of measurement the research is valid if it accurately reflects what it was intended to measure. * Often the validity or precision of research is increased when a combination of methods is used. It is very much dependent on the factual data and truths, reliability of data and the accuracy in the interpretation of the data collected. * To achieve validity the researcher must have **background knowledge of the topic** in order to show an a**ccurate representation of the population** being studied.

Answer 21

* **Example** - A researcher is conducting a study on unemployment rates in Australia. The researcher is assuming to find high unemployment rates will increase the economy (incorrect background knowledge). Because the researcher is not accurately reflecting what is intended to measure (high unemployment rates results in a decrease in the economy). Therefore, this assumption will lead to invalid data collected. However, if the researcher assumed to find out that unemployment rates decreases the economy (correct background knowledge) this will lead to valid data collected

Answer 22

* Sampling can effectively contribute to valid and reliable research through sampling methods used, the sample group, the sample size and the research method used. * Research is **valid** if it accurately reflects what it was intended to measure. By choosing samples that are representative of the population, data will consequently be enhanced and accurate as it uses samples that are specific to the research. For example, to accurately measure a research that is studying the youth, the sample group must only contain people aged 15-24 years. * **Reliability** can be enhanced by using appropriate research methods, choosing an appropriate sample group by using a method such as random sampling, and selecting a large sample size to be representative of the population. For example, when a large group is sampled, such as from all SES, both genders, all ages, a variety of cultural groups, in comparison to only using family and friends, there will be a larger variety of views, opinions and thoughts. For example, using a random sampling for sensitive topics is essential for reliable research, otherwise participants may not openly discuss their opinions or feelings. Thus, increasing the likelihood if the methodology tool were to be used under similar conditions similar results would present.

Answer 23

**BIRP** * Bias * Integrity * Respect * Privacy

Answer 24

* **Bias** in research involves the research using their personal influence or opinion to affect the data collected. * This may include using individuals or groups that they personally know as their subjects (convenience sampling), asking leading questions in questionnaires or interviews, favouring a preconceived position on a topic, avoiding certain questions, altering the answers or observations made in primary research and using samples that do not reflect the intended sample population.

Answer 25

* **Integrity** refers to **honesty** and the display of strong moral principles shown by the researcher. It can be used to describe behaviour towards the subjects being used in the research, or it can refer to the quality of the data, resources being used to support the findings. * Researchers should avoid any sort of bias in their research and be upfront and honest with subjects. * They should present the findings that were uncovered, maintain reliability and validity, **use reliable research methods,** adhere to the rules and guidelines stipulated, display professional conduct, and document data accurately and truthfully. * Integrity of data must also be displayed through **correct referencing of sources** and acknowledgement of individuals and groups, as well as accurate record keeping.

Answer 26

* **Respect** can be used alongside integrity, as the subjects being used in the research must be respected and valued. Their opinions, thoughts, feelings, culture, religion, age, gender and health must be respected. * Researchers must **seek permission** firstly to conduct research with the subjects, but also to present any data obtained from the subjects. **Informed consent** must be gained and permission from parents for underage children must be sought. * Researchers should be aware of the development of their questions and approach when conducting research. Subjects should also have the **right to refuse to participate** or answer a question that could possibly be too personal or sensitive in nature. * They have the **right to skip questions**, have the results destroyed and to see the final product before it is published. Researchers must not put any subject in harm’s way or at risk.

Answer 27

* **Privacy** needs to be considered through **anonymity** and **confidentiality**. Subjects need to be protected and remain anonymous. Names should be changed or coded when referring to subjects. * Confidentiality needs to be exhibited through **seeking permission** of subjects of research, especially when using smart phones and video recording devices. * Researchers also need to keep results to themselves, **store data** carefully during the research and wholly **destroy results** once they have been used.

Answer 28

**CRAM** * Crediting sources of data * Researching sensitive topics * Avoiding research bias * Maintaining confidentiality

Answer 29

Sensitive topics could include research on: * Illegal activities or ethically questionable behaviours * Racism, ageism, classism, discrimination and sexism * Experiences involving grief and loss, trauma or violence * Job performance or competency

Answer 30

* To ensure **respect** is to ensure the safety, feelings and needs of the individual involved in research are maintained throughout. **Voluntary involvement and request to withdraw** at any time are rights of the individuals involved in research that demonstrate respect. * The **careful wording of questions**; the avoidance of questions sensitive or offensive in nature; and maintaining respect in terms of culture, religious values and beliefs, gender, sexuality and disability are all important. This could be done through careful planning and organizing by the researcher as well as adopting ethical behaviours such as integrity for the subject to ensure respect and privacy. * Another strategy to ensure **respect** is to **seek permission from an individual** involved in a research study before the commencement of conducting primary research through methods such as questionnaires, interviews and observations. * The purpose and intentions of the research study need to be made clear through constant communication with the individual being researched, as this ensures respect. This could be done by **seeking consent and signed documentation** by the individuals involved in the research as well as seeking permission when recording devices are used.

Answer 31

* When conducting research, it is imperative that the researcher upholds the ethical behaviour of privacy which can be achieved through confidentiality. * Firstly, a researcher could **avoid questions that are too private** or reveal specific details about the individual being researched to ensure **privacy** is adopted throughout the research study. * The **secure storage of results and data** and subsequent **shredding** prior to disposal could also be adopted to ensure privacy. * **Requesting anonymity** could also be another strategy adopted by the researcher to uphold privacy. When subjects involved in research put a name to questionnaires, the inclusion of their name may result in researcher bias and as a result lead to unreliable and invalid results. * By **adopting non- identifying codes**, such as letters or numbers and not disclosing the names of the subjects involved in the research respect and privacy are maintained.

Answer 32

* When conducting research, it is imperative to avoid bias as a researcher does not want their personal beliefs, feelings, opinions, judgement, relationships and subjectivity to the issues and/or participants to negatively affect the validity of the results. * To avoid research bias, a researcher should use **appropriate sampling methods, sample groups and sample size.** For example, to avoid bias a researcher could: * Use a larger the sample size the more reflective the data obtained will be of the total population. * Choosing participants for the research method by using appropriate methods such as a stratified random sample rather than a convenience sample where members are chosen because they are easily accessible/located. * The researcher chooses correct people within their sample group that reflects what they are achieving to find out, allowing for a wider range of opinions and thoughts. Being **inclusive** of SES, age, gender, culture etc.; within the sample group. A researcher could also ensure they use **non-identifying codes** when conducting research to ensure the researcher cannot identify the participants by name therefore avoiding research bias and unreliable results.

Answer 33

* It is crucial when conducting research that they remain honest and truthful throughout the process to ensure they achieve integrity and valid/reliable results from their research. * One strategy a researcher could employ to demonstrate integrity is to ensure they **credit all secondary sources** used throughout their research in their bibliography as well as through the **correct use of in text referencing**. * This allows the researcher to acknowledge the work and ideas of others and not accept credit for work that is not there’s. Evidently, by employing this strategy the researcher will uphold the integrity of the research.

Answer 34

**QCOIL** * Questionnaires * Case studies * Observations * Interviews * Literature reviews

Answer 35

* **Questionnaire**: a set of formally prepared questions that seek information on a person’s knowledge, belief, feelings, opinions, likes or dislikes; it is completed by the respondent. * Questionnaires often create quantitative data that can be represented in numerical form and presented using bar, line, or pie graphs, or tables with statistics or percentages. * Questionnaires can ask two types of questions closed ended questions which elicit limited range of responses and open-ended questions which provide for the opportunity for an open response without any guidance from the researcher

Answer 36

**Advantages** * Questions can collect both quantitative and qualitative data * Quick to distribute to respondents * Data can be collected from a large group of people * Data collect is easily interpreted **Disadvantages** * Questions may be misinterpreted * Respondents need to have satisfactory literacy skills * Researcher has to wait for responses to be returned * Qualitative data may be difficult to compare

Answer 37

* Case study is a primary research method in which the data collected are in a raw format and have not been gathered or written by another party. * Case studies are **detailed investigations** **conducted over time** (possibly even weeks, months or years) on a particular focus area, issue, individual, group or organisation. * Case studies are developed using a number of primary research methods as well as secondary data that already exists. Researchers may choose to use pre-existing secondary case studies. * Case studies can be difficult to develop as they are intended to **show a process or how a change has occurred**. They can be **subjective**, and researchers may find it difficult not to become involved and thus influence the results.

Answer 38

**Advantages** * Detailed information is collected on the topic being researched through the multiple research methods employed * Sample population can be surveyed when large populations not available * A hypothesis can be developed than tested * Can show trends over time **Disadvantages** * Time consuming and difficult to analyse data * Data bias when one person is collecting * Data collected may not reflect population

Answer 39

* **Observations**: require the researcher to watch and record **behaviours** of their subjects. Observations are made of individuals or groups in a certain environment and how they behave or response is recorded. * Researchers can engage in participant observation, where the researcher observes from within or non-participant observation, where the subjects are not interacting with the researcher. * Data can be recorded through notes or images by the researcher while the session is taking place or, with permission, the session can be recorded to view later. * Data analysis can be done through the detailed notes made, recordings watched and diagrams/graph created. * Observations may be subject to bias possibly due to the interaction with the researcher, knowledge of observation, change in subject behaviour or the accuracy of recording.

Answer 40

**Advantages** * Allows for richly detailed description * Provides direct access to social phenomena under struction * Provides a permanent record **Disadvantages** * Bias in the recording of events viewed * Lack of trust in the observer by those being observed * Can be very time consuming * Presence of observer may influence behaviour of those being observed

Answer 41

* **Interview** is a conversation or discussion between two or more people to collect information or opinions; it is often concerned with their understanding, knowledge or perception of the facts or circumstances related to the topic of research. * Questions are asked of individuals or groups face-to-face, on the phone or via any other technology such as video, conferencing, smartphones. * Interviews can be formally structured where there are a set of questions developed beforehand, or unstructured, which is more casual in nature and questions are developed in a conversational manner. * Recording and interpreting data is more difficult for interviews because of the nature of questions and the responses. This can be done via pen and paper but with permission any form of technology, such as Dictaphone, smartphone, camcorder or IPad would make it much easier.

Answer 42

**Advantages** * Respondents can have questions reworded for clarification or be prompted for more detail * Interviewer can judge if questions become too sensitive and adjust them * A large amount of information may be gathered due to the qualitative nature of method * Both qualitative and quantitative data can be generated depending on the questions asked **Disadvantages** * Time consuming to plan, conduct and collate data * Less anonymity for respondent’s due to the personal nature of interviews * Too much information can be difficult to analyse * Communication difficulties may arise due to language barriers

Answer 43

* **Literature reviews** is a **secondary** research method involving a search and evaluation of existing knowledge on a particular topic. * Literature reviews can be developed by researchers in response to the review of different pre-existing secondary sources that relate to the focus of the research. * Literature reviews provide background and supportive material to the focus of research. * Sources that can be used to create a literature review include, books, journals, online sources, newspapers, articles or other relevant secondary sources. All sources must be cited correctly within literature review and then acknowledged correctly in bibliography.

Answer 44

**Advantages** * Literatures are versatile. Can be conducted for almost any topic. * They provide historical context and identify the authors that have been engaged in similar work. They show what have been found and set a framework for new research * They are relatively inexpensive and efficient. A large amount of data can be collected quickly at minimal cost * Previous sources can be qualitative and quantitative so a balanced perspective may be achieved. **Disadvantages** * An effective literature review requires high level of literacy skills to identify resources, analyse sources to identify relevant information, and to write a meaningful summary * It can be time-consuming reading other people’s research and making sense of it * Literature reviews are limited to collecting information about what has happened in the past. The data is not about current actual behaviours.

Answer 45

* To obtain reliable and valid data a researcher will always use a combination of research methodologies. * However, a researcher will need to determine which methods will be most suitable to ensure accurate data and a true representation of the populations is achieved. * This can be done by examining the advantages and disadvantages of each research method. * A researcher will also need to take into consideration who is the population being sampled, the type of data they want to collect (quantitative and qualitative), accessibility of individuals and groups and many more. **Hint** - Look at the wording of the HSC questions to help guide your decision. If they include the following words then that is the MOST suitable research method ot use * Questionnaires: Large population, Australia, the youth * Case studies: Detailed investigation, period of time * Observations: Behaviour, interactions, relationships * Interviews: Thoughts, opinions, qualitative * Literature reviews: Background knowledge

Answer 46

**PCI** * Planning for research * Conducting research * Interpreting research

Answer 47

**FM** * Formulating a research proposal * Managing resources e.g. time, materials

Answer 48

* **Planning for research** - includes formatting a research proposal in which researchers develop a project plan, which is an initial summary and outline of the research process. * **Formulating a research proposal** - is useful for looking at the entire research project. A clear proposal outlines what is to be done, how it will be done and when it will be done. This stage would include selecting a research focus, selecting appropriate sampling methods, proposing how the research will be conducted and creating a timeline for research goals. * **Managing resouces** - such as time through planning and materials such as a tablet or laptop, recording devices, note pads, and folders needed to conduct the research. For example, questionnaires may need to be developed and printed, the use of equipment organised or telephone calls made to arrange interview times. * **Timeline** - should be completed at this stage. Using a table format chart helps to clarify tasks to be done and set deadlines to meet along the way. The time frame needs to be manageable, once you know how much time you have available, you can plot out and carefully plan what you will do and when.

Answer 49

**ACD** * Accessing sources of data * Collecting and recording data * Documenting actions and issues

Answer 50

* After the planning stage, a researcher will start **conducting research**. * This involves **accessing sources of data** through individuals, groups, print and digital sources. Included in this would be accessing relevant **sources of secondary data** and using **suitable research methods** to collect and record primary and secondary data. * The next step would involve **collecting and recording data**. This could be through a **variety of research methods** and using a number of different recording devices. * While conducting research, researchers would be **documenting actions and issues** (diary entries) through recording actions and proposing solutions to any research issues.

Answer 51

* The researcher may create a record of the ongoing process through a diary, * This diary should reflect the **proposed timeline** and would record the values, attitudes and feelings of the researcher. It should reflect **honestly** on **problems** encountered and their **solutions**. * The diary could be used to record readings, conversations, contacts and sources of secondary data.

Answer 52

**PAD** * Presentign research findings * Analysing research results * Drawing conclusions from research

Answer 53

* The last stage of the research process involves **interpreting research**. * This is done through **presenting research findings** by using both quantitative data in graphs, tables and statistics as well as qualitative data through detailed descriptions of the data discovered. * **Analysing research results** would involve comparing key findings from primary and secondary data to develop a comprehensive analysis of the results discovered. * Finally, **drawing conclusions** from research would involve the researcher forming research-based conclusions, discussing the overall findings of the investigation, linking this to the hypothesis or focus question, what was learnt, how valid and reliable findings were, and making recommendations as to what might be done differently next time. * The researcher would ensure that they are **crediting sources** of data by the means of a correctly formatted **bibliography** (and throughout the project). The researcher can also develop a clearly numbered and labelled **appendix** should they wish to include any supporting materials that did not fit in the main body of the report, such as interview questions, any copies of raw data, key secondary articles used or interview transcripts.

Answer 54

* **Tables** list numerical data in labelled columns and are therefore useful in showing relationships or making comparisons between factors. * All tables should contain a title, row and column headings, population (complete set of cases described), source and any necessary explanations at the bottom tables are the most appropriate way to present data when the researcher wants to maintain numerical details; for example, showing specific differences in things such as amounts, percentages, metres or dollars. * **Example** if a researcher wanted to demonstrate the types of support services accessed by young people, and it was vital to show the number or percentage of young people accessing each service, a table would make it possible to present the exact numbers or percentages, whereas a graph may not show this as accurately.

Answer 55

* **Graphs** can be a very effective and visually appealing way of presenting quantitative data for a research project when the researcher wants to show a pattern, comparison or trend in research data. * They can show absolute values, such as the number of people who are married; or they can show trends, such as school retention rates across time; or they can show the relationship between variables, such as height and weight.

Answer 56

* **Bar graphs** can show values or amounts as numbers on a scale along the x-axis, with labelled horizontal bars on the y-axis. They can **display full category labels on the y-axis** and multiple items of data.

Answer 57

* **Column** graphs can present **comparisons** of data. * Numbers on a scale on the y-axis and labelled vertical columns on the x-axis represent different values. * They can display more than one series of data with different coloured columns and multiple items of data, but can only accommodate short category labels.

Answer 58

* **Line** graphs can demonstrate **changes over time** by plotting points and connecting them. When more than one factor is to be represented, different coloured lines or a combination of dotted lines are used. Up to 10 items of data can be displayed effectively.

Answer 59

* **Pie** graphs compare two or more parts of a whole on a circle divided into segments. * Each segment is coloured or shaded differently and labelled with numerical values. * Pie graphs can usually only present up to 10 items of data before they become difficult to read.

Answer 60

* A list that includes all the sources you have looked at and used in carrying out your project. Common details required include: author’s surname and initials, title of the book or article and journal, publisher, place and date of publication.

Answer 61

Appendices are included at the end of a report and contain material that is relevant to the research project but is not appropriate to have as part of the body of the report. Sometimes an appendix may be very long and placing it in the body of the report would interfere with the flow and reading. Typical appendixes may contain: * A copy of the questionnaire or interview questions * Maps or similar documents used in preparing the report * Long and complex tables referred to in the report * A complete list of people interviewed

Unit 1 - Research methodology Flashcards

(85 cards)