Psyc 302 > Unit 1.1 > Flashcards

Unit 1.1 Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the two kinds of cells in the nervous system?

A
  • Neurons
  • Glia

Neurons receive information and transmit it to other cells, while glia serve many functions that are complex and varied.

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2
Q

Approximately how many neurons are there in the adult human brain?

A

86 billion

The exact number of neurons varies from person to person.

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3
Q

What is the primary function of neurons?

A

Receive information and transmit it to other cells

Neurons are essential for communication within the nervous system.

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4
Q

True or false: Glia serve functions that are easy to summarize.

A

FALSE

The functions of glia are complex and will be discussed later in the module.

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5
Q
A
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6
Q

What is the surface of a cell called?

A

membrane (or plasma membrane)

The membrane separates the inside of the cell from the outside environment.

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7
Q

What do protein channels in the cell membrane permit?

A
  • Controlled flow of water
  • Oxygen
  • Sodium
  • Potassium
  • Calcium
  • Chloride
  • Other important chemicals

These channels allow specific substances to cross the membrane.

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8
Q

True or false: Most chemicals can cross the cell membrane freely.

A

FALSE

Most chemicals cannot cross the membrane without assistance from protein channels.

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9
Q

What is the structure that contains the chromosomes in animal cells?

A

nucleus

Except for mammalian red blood cells, all animal cells have a nucleus.

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10
Q

What structure performs metabolic activities and provides energy for the cell?

A

mitochondrion (plural: mitochondria)

Mitochondria have genes separate from those in the nucleus and differ genetically from one another.

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11
Q

People with overactive mitochondria tend to _______.

A

burn their fuel rapidly and overheat

This occurs even in a cool environment.

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12
Q

People whose mitochondria are less active than normal are predisposed to _______.

A

depression and pains

Mutated mitochondrial genes are a possible cause of autism.

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13
Q

What are the sites within a cell that facilitate chemical reactions?

A

ribosomes

Some ribosomes float freely, while others are attached to the endoplasmic reticulum.

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14
Q

The endoplasmic reticulum is a network of thin tubes that transport _______.

A

newly synthesized proteins

This transport occurs to other locations within the cell.

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15
Q

What is the most distinctive feature of neurons?

A

their shape

Neurons have long branching extensions that vary enormously from one neuron to another.

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16
Q

All neurons include a soma (cell body) and most also have _______.

A

dendrites and an axon

Some tiny neurons lack axons and well-defined dendrites.

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17
Q

What type of neuron receives excitation through its dendrites and conducts impulses to a muscle?

A

motor neuron

The soma of a motor neuron is located in the spinal cord.

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18
Q

A sensory neuron is specialized to be highly sensitive to a particular type of _______.

A

stimulation

This can include light, sound, or touch.

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19
Q

The sensory neuron conducts touch information from the skin to the _______.

A

spinal cord

Tiny branches lead directly from the receptors into the axon.

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20
Q

What is the cell body of a motor neuron called?

A

Soma

The cell body is located in the spinal cord.

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21
Q

What structure in a motor neuron is responsible for transmitting signals away from the cell body?

A

Axon

The axon is much longer in proportion to the soma.

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22
Q

What is the function of the myelin sheath in a neuron?

A

Insulates the axon

This insulation helps speed up signal transmission.

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23
Q

What are the presynaptic terminals in a neuron?

A

End points of the axon

They release neurotransmitters to communicate with other neurons.

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24
Q

What is the axon hillock?

A

The part of the neuron where the axon begins

It is crucial for initiating action potentials.

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25
What are **dendritic spines**?
Small protrusions on dendrites ## Footnote They are sites for synaptic connections.
26
What type of neuron has sensory endings and a soma located on a stalk off the main trunk of the axon?
Sensory neuron ## Footnote This structure allows for the transmission of sensory information.
27
What is the **nucleus** in a neuron?
Control center of the cell ## Footnote It contains the cell's genetic material.
28
What is a **muscle fiber**?
A type of cell that makes up muscles ## Footnote Muscle fibers are responsible for contraction.
29
What is the **function of sensory endings** in a sensory neuron?
Detects stimuli from the environment ## Footnote They convert physical stimuli into electrical signals.
30
What are **dendrites**?
Branching fibers that get narrower near their ends ## Footnote The term dendrite comes from a Greek root word meaning *tree*, as they branch like a tree.
31
What is the function of **synaptic receptors** on dendrites?
Receive information from other neurons ## Footnote The greater the surface area of a dendrite, the more information it can receive.
32
What are **dendritic spines**?
Short outgrowths that increase the surface area available for synapses ## Footnote Many dendrites contain these spines to enhance synaptic connections.
33
What is the **cell body** of a neuron also known as?
Soma ## Footnote The term soma comes from Greek meaning *body*.
34
What is the diameter range of **cell bodies** of neurons in mammals?
* 0.005 mm to 0.1 mm ## Footnote In certain invertebrates, cell bodies can be up to a millimeter in diameter.
35
What is the **axon**?
A thin fiber of constant diameter that conveys impulses ## Footnote The term axon comes from a Greek word meaning *axis*.
36
How long can **axons** be?
More than a meter in length ## Footnote For example, axons can extend from the spinal cord to the feet.
37
What analogy does Giorgio Ascoli use to describe the length of an **axon** compared to a **dendrite**?
If a dendrite were the height of a tree, the axon would extend for more than 25 city blocks ## Footnote This highlights the significant difference in length between axons and dendrites.
38
What is an **efferent axon**?
An axon that transmits signals **from A** ## Footnote Efferent axons carry information away from a specific point.
39
What is an **afferent axon**?
An axon that transmits signals **to B** ## Footnote Afferent axons carry information towards a specific point.
40
True or false: An axon from A to B is both an **efferent** axon from A and an **afferent** axon to B.
TRUE ## Footnote This illustrates the dual perspective of axonal directionality.
41
What are the **star-shaped glial cells** that wrap around the synapses of functionally related axons?
Astrocytes ## Footnote Astrocytes shield connections between neurons from chemicals and help synchronize closely related neurons.
42
Astrocytes help synchronize closely related neurons by taking up ions and transmitters and then releasing them back. This enables their axons to send messages in _______.
waves ## Footnote This function is crucial for generating rhythms, such as the rhythm of breathing.
43
Astrocytes dilate blood vessels to bring more _______ into brain areas with heightened activity.
nutrients ## Footnote This process supports increased brain activity.
44
According to the **tripartite synapse hypothesis**, what does the tip of an axon release that causes neighboring astrocytes to release their own chemicals?
Chemicals ## Footnote This process may magnify or modify the message to the next neuron.
45
Astrocytes may contribute to **learning and memory** by magnifying or modifying messages through the tripartite synapse. True or False?
TRUE ## Footnote This process is linked to the potential for learning and memory enhancement.
46
What type of glial cells act as part of the **immune system** in the brain, removing viruses and fungi?
Microglia ## Footnote Microglia also proliferate after brain damage to remove dead or damaged neurons.
47
Microglia contribute to learning by removing the _______ synapses.
weakest ## Footnote This function helps refine neural connections.
48
What are the glial cells called that build the **myelin sheaths** surrounding and insulating certain vertebrate axons?
* Oligodendrocytes (in the brain and spinal cord) * Schwann cells (in the periphery) ## Footnote These cells also supply axons with necessary nutrients.
49
What type of glia guide the migration of neurons and their axons and dendrites during **embryonic development**?
Radial glia ## Footnote Most radial glia differentiate into neurons after development, while some become astrocytes and oligodendrocytes.
50
What is the **mechanism** that excludes most chemicals from the vertebrate brain?
blood-brain barrier ## Footnote This barrier is crucial for protecting the brain from harmful substances while allowing necessary nutrients to pass.
51
Why do we need a **blood-brain barrier**?
To minimize the risk of irreparable brain damage ## Footnote The brain does not replace damaged neurons easily, so protecting it from infections is vital.
52
What happens when a **virus** invades a cell?
The cell extrudes virus particles through the membrane ## Footnote This alerts the immune system to kill the infected cell and prevent further spread.
53
True or false: The vertebrate brain can easily replace damaged neurons.
FALSE ## Footnote Unlike skin or blood cells, damaged neurons in the brain are not easily replaced.
54
Name two **viruses** that can cross the blood-brain barrier.
* Rabies virus * Spirochete responsible for syphilis ## Footnote These viruses can lead to severe consequences, including death.
55
What is the role of **microglia** when viruses enter the brain?
Mount an inflammatory response to fight the virus ## Footnote This response can control the virus without killing the neuron.
56
What condition can occur when the **chicken pox virus** enters spinal cord cells?
Shingles ## Footnote The virus can remain dormant in the spinal cord and emerge decades later.
57
Fill in the blank: The virus responsible for **_____________** hides in the nervous system and can periodically emerge to cause new genital infections.
genital herpes ## Footnote This virus produces little harm while dormant but can reactivate.
58
What is the **blood-brain barrier** primarily formed by?
Endothelial cells ## Footnote These cells form the walls of the capillaries in the brain, tightly joined to block harmful substances.
59
True or false: The **blood-brain barrier** allows all chemicals to pass freely.
FALSE ## Footnote The barrier blocks harmful chemicals but also keeps out useful ones like fuels and amino acids.
60
What types of molecules can cross the **blood-brain barrier** without special mechanisms?
* Small, uncharged molecules (e.g., oxygen, carbon dioxide) * Molecules that dissolve in fats (e.g., vitamins A and D, certain drugs) ## Footnote These molecules can cross freely through cell walls.
61
How does **water** cross the blood-brain barrier?
Through special protein channels ## Footnote This allows water to pass through the endothelial cell walls.
62
What process is used for **active transport** of certain chemicals into the brain?
A protein-mediated process that expends energy ## Footnote This process pumps chemicals like glucose and amino acids from the blood into the brain.
63
Name some chemicals that are **actively transported** into the brain.
* Glucose * Amino acids * Purines * Choline * Certain vitamins * Iron ## Footnote These are essential for brain function and energy.
64
What is the main fuel for the brain that crosses the **blood-brain barrier**?
Glucose ## Footnote Glucose is crucial for brain energy metabolism.
65
What is the primary source of **nutrition** for vertebrate neurons?
glucose ## Footnote Most cells use a variety of carbohydrates and fats, but vertebrate neurons depend almost entirely on glucose.
66
Which other types of cells also rely overwhelmingly on **glucose**?
* Cancer cells * Testis cells that make sperm ## Footnote These cells, like neurons, have a high dependence on glucose for energy.
67
Why do neurons require a steady supply of **oxygen**?
Because metabolizing glucose requires oxygen ## Footnote Neurons use about 20 percent of the body's oxygen despite constituting only about 2 percent of its weight.
68
What percentage of the body's **glucose** do neurons use?
25 percent ## Footnote This high usage reflects their energy demands.
69
What is the only nutrient that crosses the **blood-brain barrier** in large quantities?
glucose ## Footnote Neurons can use ketones and lactate, but glucose is preferred.
70
Under what condition is a **glucose shortage** a problem for neurons?
STARVATION ## Footnote The liver can produce glucose from various sources, mitigating shortages.
71
What vitamin is necessary for the body to use **glucose**?
vitamin B1 (thiamine) ## Footnote Prolonged deficiency can lead to severe neurological issues.
72
What condition is marked by severe memory impairments due to prolonged **thiamine deficiency**?
Korsakoff's syndrome ## Footnote This condition is often associated with chronic alcoholism.
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