1
Q
history
A
- Know what the message is without having to hear it
- Caller ID and see it’s your boyfriend
- Dont listen to the message b/c you know what he wants based on history
- dese anteriorgrade amnesia
*
2
Q
pathway
A
- result of neuromigration during development
3
Q
history (science explanation)
A
- neurosculpting
- start with undifferentiated neurons and then figure out who you are by wiring specific neurons
4
Q
neural wiring
A
- dedicated pathways and history
5
Q
zygote
A
single cell (sperm+egg)
6
Q
embryo
A
- 2 or more cells
- totipotent
7
Q
stem cell
A
- have the potential to differentiate into any cell
- regenerate
8
Q
totipotent
A
- ability of single cell to divide and produce all the differentiated cells that make up an organism
9
Q
In vitro fertilization (IVF)
A
- inject fertilized egg into female that is infertile, or whose husband is infertile
- implant multiple to be sure
10
Q
how does totipotent cell know what to differentiate into
A
- chemical gradient in uterus
- chemical composition of cell in uterus, determines what it will become
- nearest to bottom- neurons (fetus develops with head down)
11
Q
migration
A
- neron has to migrate to target in spine
- genetics and chemical influences determine migration during development
12
Q
difference between fetus and embryo
A
- fetus at 3 months b/c start looking human
13
Q
how does neuron know where to travel
A
- growth cone serves as “feelers”
14
Q
retina neurons
A
- half of cell cross over at ptic chiasm
- other half dont
- example of some neurons following signs and others not
15
Q
3 stages of differentiation
A
- figure out what cell is going to be
- strat to migrate
- when close to target get permiscuous about where you want to be
16
Q
Retinal signal
A
- neural cell in retina senses light
- nerve reaches optic chiasm
- cells then travel to cortex
- *spot on retina correlates with spot on cortex (good connection)
17
Q
bad connection
A
- signal on retina goes to wrong part of cortex
- surrounding cells in retina are correct connection and behaving appropriately- releasing neruotransmitters and neurotrophins
- surrounding cells in cortex are not happy b/c not in the same location as the right cells
- neural cell of bad connection goes through apoptosis
18
Q
neurotrophins
A
- enhance growth
- Ex: nerve growth factors
19
Q
apoptosis
A
- programmed cell death
- cell only does it when it knows it doesn’t belong
- leads to the complicated connections and proper cell arrangement
- Ex: good for eliminating webbed feet and hands of embryo
- bag organnelles to prepare for release upon bursting and macrophage degradation
20
Q
necrosis
A
- cell injury that results in premature death
- membrane ruptures and dumps organelles into extracellular fluid before they are “bagged”
- release of free radicals
- Inflammation
21
Q
connect to right side of cortex
A
- turn on and off at the same time as neighbors
- release and receive neurotransmitters and nerve growth factors at same time as others
- If iincorrect, don’t do or get stuff at same time as neighbors, so go through apoptosis
22
Q
Japanese and “r” and “l”
A
- during development that can distiguish rs and ls
- as adults can’t hear or say rs and ls differently
- examples of apoptosis
23
Q
Canadians vs. Americans
A
- Americans have lost ability to hear 3 different sounds, but Canadians can
- Ex: can’t distiguish between about and a boot
24
Q
learning language
A
- many connections before age 5
- connections decrease after 5 b/c cells that aren’t used kill off
- loose ability to distinguish
- Ex: why easier for younger kids to pick up numerous languages
25
Genie
* when made noises she was beaten
* when found only spoke 2 english words b/c dad and mom didn't talk to her (just yelled)
* shows that we have an INNATE tendency to pick up language
* IQ was above average, but was still unable to pick up language
26
critical period
* period at which language cortex kills itself after you haven't picked up a language
* Genie was 13, so must be before 13
27
trying on different hats
* during adolescence try different identities
* whatever you practice at end of adolecence remains, while other cells associated with other things that don't fit
* pick your rut well
28
frontal cortex
identity
29
cigarette companies
* want to recruit adolescence b/c they will kill off cells that don't encourage smoking
* stuck with additcted cells
30
what happens to a developing neuron that fails to reach its target
* would be outlier and not truning on and off simultaneously with surrounding neurons
* commit apoptosis- genetic tendency
31
how does neuron find its target
chemicals
32
why don't most neurons regenerate
* connections are very numerous and complicated
* no longer have chemical gradient to follow
* BBB isolates neurons from chemical and pathogenic insults- no exposure means don't really need to
33
why do olfactory neurons regenerate
* they are stem cells (other neurons aren't)
* connections are simple
* they are not isolated by BBB
* exposed to chemical insults for your benefit and protection
* olfatory neurons have to test for us
34
what are 3 epochos characterized by massive apoptosis
1. ) prenatal- before birth
2. ) paranatal- after birth
3. ) age 21- find identity then other connections not used die
35
what happens if inject NGF (nerve growth factor) antagonist into developing brain
* massive widespread brain damage
* none of the cells think they are connected in the right way
* in a normal cell, only the nerves that think they are not normally connected kill themselves
36
turpsichore
* goddess of dance
* chorea from Huntington's chorea
37
Huntington's chorea
* dominant and lethal
* lose inhibitory -\> everything you do is excitatory
* always overshoot destination
38
incest
* bad for genome to have sex with close relation
* may express lethal genes that could have been avoided by having sex with someone who wasn't related
* if both heteroygous, 1/4 chance of having a kid with lethal genes
39
homozygous for dominant w/ heterozygous for lethal
* no kids express double recessive lethal version
40
Hapsberg
* kept mating with each other so more and more prominant jaw
41
mutations
* maladaptive
* lethal
* most often recessive
42
arranged marriage where you meet on wedding night
* more successful
43
preventing recessive expression
* repeled from people you don't want to have sex with (close relatives, friends)
* genes don't want to have sex with closely related
44
arranged marriage with childhood acquaintance
* less successful b/c genes don't like to have sex with closely related
45
combination of excitatory and inhibitory
* essential for every move you make
* don't get to destination as fast, but get there effectively and don't overshoot (as would if only excitatory)
46
only have excitatory movements
* consequence of drinking b/c alcohol suppresses inhibitory senses
* cells don't repolarize
* overshoot destination
* ex: swining door- spring only
47
door w/o spring and shock absorber
* spring- excitatory
* shock absorber- inhibitory
* stimulates motor neurons
48
how can lethal gene be dominant
* lethal at onset
* lethal genes passed on to kids
49
Parkinson's disease
* dopaminergic cells in substantia nigra fail to release dopamine -\> can't move
* loss of dopaminergic cells
* typical onset after 45 years old
* movement can be initiated by external influences
50
parkinson's and movement
* can't initiate movement on your own- internally
* externally- initiated actions are possible though
* Ex: once complete first step, can go up all of them
51
MPTP
* injection similar to heroin
* one guy became paralyzed in rigid state- heroin paralysis is sloppy, not rigid
* targets dopamine reuptake transporters
* representation of what occurs with parkinson's
52
addictive drug
* targets dopamine
* cocaine, alcohol, heroin, etc
* Marijuana and LSD NOT addictive
53
dopamine action
1. ) dopamine release
2. ) dopamine transporter release
3. ) dopamine & transporter to soma
4. ) in soma dopamine removed and recycled (repackaged)
54
blocking dopamine transferase
* caused by MPTP in synapse
* affinity of MPTP and dopamine transporter molecule is much greater than transporter affinity for dopamine
55
MPTP and dopamine transporter
* high affinity
* blocks up mitochondria
* cell can't function w/o mitochondria
* dopaminergic cell dies
56
treat parkinson's
* L-dopa
* stem cells
57
L-dopa
* can cross blood brain barrier, unlike straight up dopamine
* dopamine "bisquick"
* remaining dopaminergic cells can use to make dopamine effectively w/o having to start from scratch
* temporary treatment for parkinson's b/c dopaminergic cells will continue to die
58
reason for reduced prevealence of Huntington's
* gene testing lets person know they have the lethal gene and could pass it on
* most people won't have kids and take risk
59
will we all develop parkinson's
yes b/c dopaminergic cells die off over time
60
negative symptoms of schizophrenia (SZ)
* lacking something normal people have
* flat affect
* catatonia
* waxy flexibility
61
substantia nigra
* part of midbrain that plays a role in reward, addiction, and movement
* death of dopaminergic neurons leads to Parkinson's
62
dopamine and substantia nigra
* loss of dopaminergic neurons in substantia nigra results in Parkinson's
63
schizophrenia
* mental disorder characterized by a breakdown of thought processes and deficit of typical emotions
* Eugen Bleuler defined as split-mind
* NOT multiple personality disorder
64
diagnosing sz
* negative and positive symptoms
65
positive symptoms sz
* have something extra that normal people don't have
* NOT such a good thing
* psychotic cluster
* disorganized cluster
66
affect
expression of feeling or emotion
67
psychotic cluster
* positive symptom sz
* generally expressed by age 30
* hallucinations- generally auditory
* delusions
* paranoia
68
auditory hallucination
* think hearing things but not
* auditory context IS active
69
delusion
* false belief
70
catatonia
state of neurogenic motor immobility, and behavioral abnormality manifested by stupor
71
paranoia
expectation of conspiracy
72
disorganized cluster
* inability to keep self together
* invovles abnormal thinking and hygiene
73
causes sz
* genetics
* prenatal stress- flu, famine, etc
* dopamine hypothesis
74
monozygotic twins raised apart
* control nature (biology) and manipulate nurture
* identical twins
* 75% sz concordance rate
75
dizygotic twins raised together
* manipulate nature (genes) and control nurture
* faternal twins- different genes
* sz concordance rate is 25%
76
concordance rate
* have schizophrenic
* what are the odds relative has sz
77
do you inherit sz
* no, the concordance rate would be 100%, but it's not
* you inherit a sensitivity to sz (diathesis)
78
diathesis stress model of sz
* inherit sensitivity to sz
* increased chance if exposed to stress
79
stress during prenatal development
* second trimester during flu season
* mother stress, causes fetus to experience stress
* stress increases chance of sz
80
likelihood of sz if born in flu season
* March, April, May
* higher likelihood than childrne born in other months b/c of maternal stress during flu season
81
prevelance of sz
* increased for those born 3 months following flu season
* northern hemisphere- march, april, may
* southern hemisphere- sept, oct, nov
82
Starvation Winter
* massive famine throughout Holland
* prevelance of sz increased following famine- when pregos had babies
* consequences of being in womb during starvation winter (stress)
83
brain damage sz
* ventricles are larger than those w/o
* prefrontal cortex smaller than those w/o
* suspected to occur prenatally
84
onset sz symptoms
* typically between 20-30 yrs old
* pre-existing prenatal stress
* post adolescent apoptosis results in complete use prefrontal cortex
* don't rely on prefrontal cortex until 21ish
* when need PFC, psychosis due to prenatal stress starts to appear
85
dopamine hypothesis
* anti-psychotic drugs block dopamine
* Parkinson's is due to breakdown of dopaminergic cells
* if you turn down dopamine, you get parkinson's and you turn down psychotic symptoms
* Maybe psychotic symptoms are excess of dopamine
86
anti-psychotic drugs
* haldol- dopamine antagonist that binds to dopamine receptors and doesn't activate, but blocks
* some people that take anti-psychotic drugs get Parkinson's
87
cocaine
* amphtamine
* dopamine agonist that turns up dopamine concentration
* sz common in cocaine useres b/c sz characterized by excess of dopamine
88
cerebro-vascular incident
* stroke
* caused by ischemia and hemorrhage
* downstream neurons don't get glucose and oxygen b/c of lack of blood
* damage/dead downstream neurons
* Na/K pump slowed down
89
ischemia
* blockage due to something in your blood vessel
90
hemorrhage
* hole in blood vessel
* blood leaks out
91
therapy for damaged neurons resulting from stroke
* can't do anything about the dead cells
* is possible to reabilitate damaged cells
* in damaged Na/K pump is slowed down
* need to reabilitate penumbra cells before they become umbra cells
* have to keep Na+ from building
* have to stop glial cells
92
Penumbra
* damaged cells near dead cells
* need to be reabilitated after stroke
93
slow down of Na/K pump
* result of stroke
* not helped by glial cells
* Na+ builds up inside cell, leading to over excitation and necrosis
* penumbra cells -\> umbra cells (dead)
94
glial cells and stroke
* release glutamate
* glutamate is excitatory, so opens Na+ channels
* not good since the Na/K pump is not working
* Na+ builds up inside cell -\> necrosis
95
why can't just depress penumbra cells with downer
* only opens Cl- channels
* doesn't do anything about Na+
96
hypothermia therapy penumbra cell
* increased temp -\> faster reaction
* turn down brain temp -\> slow glial cell release of glutamate -\> not as much sodium build up -\> ATP pump has time to catch up
* have to be unconscious
* lower brain temp reduces destruction of brain tissue following stroke
* reduces excitement
* can't help necrotic cells
97
diachisis
* sudden loss of brain activity
* stroke damage leads to less overall brain activity
* immediate stimulant treatment is bad
* heat and chemical stimulants (glutamate) are BAD for penumbra cells
98
stimulant and stroke
* bad immediately after stroke b/c causes abundance of Na, which cant be removed effectively by Na/K pump (slow)
* best a few days after stroke
99
what kind of stroke did Cleo suffer from
* hemorrhage
100
traditional first aid for stroke
* place victim under a blanket and keep them warm
* worst thing to do b/c heat speeds up brain reactions
* didn't have meds then
* blanket was to distract person treating victim
101
cortical plasticity
* cant regenerate new neurons
* take existing neurons and modify/improve connections
102
phantom limb in past
* Lord Nelson thought was proof of his soul when he lost his arm
* explanations were hysteria and wishful thinking
* theroy of frayed (sloppy) nerve endings from battlefield surgery in civil war
103
phantom limb presently
* frayed nerve endings not cause- proved by cleaning up amputations and no change in sensation
* problem due to brain functions
104
primary somatosensory cortex (S1)
* every spots is a "map" for a place on the body
* discovered by Wilder Penfield
105
Penfield's epilepsy experiment
* electrode in somatosensory cortex
* patient is awake for verbal response
* applies current to different places
* finds the spot where the patient feels tingling before seizure
* removes cells responsible for seizures
106
epilepsy
* brain disorder characterized by seizures
* synchronous neural firing
* abnormal electrical activity in brain
107
sever monkey's sensory nerve
* cut sensory nerve, but leave motor nerve in tact
* even though motor nerve is fine, monkey treats arm like it is dead
* when record in somatosensory cortex corresponding to arm, don't get activity if touch arm, but get activity when stroke cheek
* Arm activity when face touched
108
Ramachandran
* stroked cheek of motorcycler that lost his arm
* said feels like stroking cheek AND finger
* makes sense b/c somatosensory cortex map shows discontinuity between head and hand
* face connection reorganized to hand in somatosensory
109
relieve phantom pain Ramachandran
* relief for left arm phantom pain
* use mirror
* put right arm in spot where feels like left arm is
* patient feels relief
110
commonsensical notion of memory
* I remember...
111
episodic memory
* memory of event
112
semantic memory
* factual memory
* word meanings
113
explicit memory
* long term memories
* kinds that you can describe in words
* memory of experiences and information
* conscious
* Ex: stating that someone is a drunk
114
implicit memory
* unconscious memory
* previous experiences aid in performance of a task
* conditioning memories (fear or sensorimotor)
* skill memories
115
epileptic focus
* where/when seizure occurs
* touch, smell, feeling, etc
116
bilateral medial temporal lobectomy
* H.M's procedure for seizures
* tissue cut and removed
* post-operative success- IQ increase
* long term amnesia
* can make conditioning memories
* appears he lost hippocampi memories
117
long-term amnesia
* H.M's situation
* can't make new memories- episodic or semantic
* new people, words, agining appearance, etc
118
classical conditioning
* Pavlov and dogs drooling (unconditioned response) when sees meat (unconditioned stimulus)
* Bell (neutral stimulus) preceding meat causes drooling
* dog associates bell with meat
* bell alone -\> drool (conditioned response): bell is no longer neutral b/c dog conditioned to stimulus
119
fear conditioning
* Edouard Claparede
* patient shakes hands with doc every time he walks in b/c doesn't remember him
* one day doc walks in with pin in his hand
* patient refuses to shake his hand next time
* doc's face now associated with pain
* doc face is conditioned stimulus and fear is conditioned response
* seems like she can make new memories if associated with fear (would've worked for H.M)
120
pain
* unconditioned stimulus
* fear is the unconditioned response
121
sensorimotor conditioning in H.M
* tone -\> puff -\> blink
122
eye doctor and conditioning
* puff of air- unconditioned stimulus
* blink- unconditioned response
* tone -\> puff -\> blink
* tone becomes conditioned stimulus and blink is conditioned response
123
Brenda Miller
* mirror drawing
* showed H.M a star with a road around it
* told H.M to take pen and follow the road w/o looking at the star (can only see star in mirror)
* ability judged by # mistakes
* begins poorly, but improves with practice
* H.M can't remember the experiences of practice, so can't explain why he can do it
* implicit memory of skill
124
Morris water maze
* island in pool but can't see b/c water is murkey
* uninjured rat can swim and find island and then find it quickly upon next trial
* rat with hipocampal lesion cannot find island easily next time around
* hippocampus plays a role in mapping/navigation
125
London cabs
* cab drivers have massive hippocampi
* as driving experience increases there is a linear increase in hippocampus size
* exercise hippocampus -\> gets bigger
126
H. M and the hippocampus
* forced us to reconsider what memory means
* short term memory in tact
* explicit long term memory broken
* has 2 yrs of retrograde amnesia
* has majority of anterograde amnesia
* recall of both explicit and implicit in tack
* implicit stroage in tact (fear, blink, mirror)
* CAN'T recall any explicit after surgery
127
amnesia
* no memory
128
memory
* short or long term (test w/ 7 digit recall)
129
long term memory storage and recall
* long term- explicit and implicit
* memories are stored, but some are not recalled
* degree of brain trauma determines how much is lost
* takes a much as 2 hours to move things into long term memory
130
retrograde amnesia
* can't remember past
* H.M's is diffuse (can't remember from 25-27)
* playback broken
131
anterograde amnesia
* don't store forward (new) memories
* record button broken
132
8 kinds of memory
* explicit storage
* explicit recall
* implicit conditioning fear (recall and retrieval)- hand shake
* implicit conditioning sensorimotor (recall and retrieval)- blink test
* implicit memory skill (recall and retrieval)- mirror
133
Why did Brenda Milner ask H.M. to learn mirrior-drawing
* proves that he can learn a new skill
* something he has never done before
* shows that he has implicit in tact
134
fear conditioning
* Skinner box for classical conditioning
* warn rat with tone before zapping feet
* after learning tone rat shows fear to hearing it
135
Joseph LeDoux
* studied conditioning in rats- looking for location of "fear" memory
* cut out part of rat brain after fear conditioning it
* decorticated, thalamotomized, and amygdalized
136
hearing sense
* ears -\> thalamus -\> auditory cortex
137
decorticate out rat's auditory cortex
* LeDoux cut out auditory cortex
* profoundly deaf rat
* play tone
* still get fear response
* Interpretation: fear memory must not be in auditory cortex
138
thalamotomized rat
* LeDoux cuts out thalamus
* play tone
* fear response abolished
* Interpretation: thalamus can't store memories, so fear response stored in thalamus projection location (amygdala)
139
amygdalized rat
* not deaf
* in tact thalamus and auditory cortex
* plays tone
* fear response abolished
* Interpretation: amygdala stores fear memories
140
two ways to amygdala
* thalamus to amygdala (fast response- low road)
* auditory cortex to amygdala (slow response- high road)
* amygdala then instigates behaviors based on emotion (Ex: rat hunkering down in response to fear)
141
why afraid when underwater
* natural response is to clear airway
* thats why you move frantically and breathe out
* cortex knows you're alright (slow road), but amygdala is quick to overreact
142
overactive low road
* panic
* thalamus to amygdala
* intuitive system
* fast, but rough
143
overactive high road
* cortex to amygdala
* "chocking"
* overthinking
* deliberative system
* slow, but flexible
144
intuitive system
* thalamus to amygdala
* fast, but rough
145
deliberative system
* cortext to amygdala
* fast, but flexible
146
H.M memory
* long term implicit in tact
* long term explicit not in tact
* skill learning is in tact (implicit)
* fear learing is in tact (implicit)
* sensory motor in tact (implicit)
147
acquisition
* acquire an association between neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus
* Ex: tone with puff causes blink
148
extinction
* break connection
* after learning repeatedly present neutral stimulus w/o unconditioned stimulus
* Ex: play tone repeatedly w/o puff of air
149
fear conditioning acquisition
* fast
150
fear conditioning extinction
* slow
151
sensorimotor conditioning acquisition
* relatively slow
* stimulus is less dangerous
152
sensorimotor conditioning extinction
* fast
153
sensorimotor vs fear conditioning
* different behaviors and physiology
* fear in amygdala
* sensorimotor in cerebellum
154
Richard Thompson
* tried to identify location of sensorimotor conditioning
* taught bunny to blink after tone (sensorimotor conditioning)
* chilled bunny cerebellum -\> turn down
* inject GABA into cerebellum -\> turn down
* bunny isn't harmed b/c chilling and GABA reversible
* after chill or GABA, bunny no longer blinks after tone
* after chill or GABA reversed (recovers), tone association is recovered
155
how are fear and sensorimotor conditioning distinct
* quicker to pick up and slower to distinguish fear conditioning
* differences physiologically (amygdala vs. cerebellum)
156
what is physiological substate of panic
* overactive low road to amygdala
* quick responses that aren't flexible
* overactive high road to amygdala is choking
157
Lashley and maze learning
* wanted to find out where old memories were b/c H.M had old explicit memories
* rat motivated by food to find his way through the maze
* rat makes fewer mistakes every time going through maze
* like the rat has map of maze in head
* Lashley cut a particular chunk out of each rat's cortex
* Rats still didn't make any mistakes after cuts, regardless of location
* Conclusion: effect of cut location means nothing, but size of cut influences performance
158
effects of cut size
* bigger cut results in a more blurred memory
* still have all memories, they are just blurry
* memories are like recipes, not blueprints
* forget butter, cake is still cake, just blurred
* if you cut out bluprint, something is missing
159
Morris water maze vs Lashley maze
* M: brain damage before learning
* M: fast trial in maze
* M: damaged rats in 2nd trial, wander like it was 1st trial
* M: no damage rats in 2nd trial- find island instantly
* M: damage to hippocampus
* M: damage precedes and abolishes learning
* L: brain damage after learning
* L: different locations and sizes of damage (cut lateral temporally)
* L: damage to lateral temporal after learning does NOT abolish learning
* Conclusion: memories are stored in lateral temporal, they are just smeared across
160
working memory
* kind of like short term memory
* enables us to organize and control thoughts
* flexibly respond to changing conditions
* maintainance of a goal and ability to achieve it
161
Phineas Gage
* metal rod went through skull between optic nerves and removed with no problem
* vision, thinking, perception, language all fine
* personality changed
* lost impulse control (frontal lobe damage)
* working memory is gone
162
Egas Moniz
* cut out frontal cortex of chimps
* poked at frontal lobe of violent psychotics
* successful in chaning personality
* led to the 40,000 lobectomies in US
163
transorbital frontal lobotomy
* ice pick through eye to brain
* Egas Moniz
* success
* resulted in pleasant psychotics
* lose who you are and your will
164
Wisconsin card sorting
* assessing frontal lobe syndrome
* assesses working memory
* can sort cards by number, color, or shape
165
Korsakoff's syndrome
* brain damage in frontal cortex and lateral temporal cortex
* lateral temporal cortex where old memories are
* retrograde amnesia and impulse control gone
166
confabulation
* making things up
* and believing it b/c don't have any old memories to make you think otherwise
* characteristic of Korsakoff's syndrome
167
timecourse for retrograde amnesia for H.M
* 2 years
* tells us hippocampus holds memories for 2 yrs
168
timecourse retrograde amnesia following ECT
* 2 hours
* takes about 2 hours to make memories solid
169
retrograde amnesia for Korsakoff sufferers
* no limit
* can go all the way back to child
* cutting out ALL memories
Physiological Psychology
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