1
Q
Functions of the Urinary system
A
- Remove substances from blood
- regulate various metabolic processes
- form urine
- regulate blood pressure
- maintain blood pH
2
Q
Function of Kidneys
A
- volume and composition and pH of body fluids
- RBC formation
- blood pressure
- absorption of Ca by activating vit. D
- elimination of N and S compounds
- formation and concentration of urine
3
Q
Neuron
A
functional unit of Kidney
4
Q
Renal corpuscle (apart nephron)
A
- glomerulus- tangle of blood arterioles
- glomerular
5
Q
glomerulonephritis
A
inflammation of the glomerulus resulting from infection, malaria, diabetes, toxins, etc.
glomeruli become plugged with antien/anti-body complexes followed by WBC accumulation resulting in renal failure
6
Q
renal tubules (apart nephron)
A
glomerular capsule to proximal convoluted tuble to nephron loop to distal convoluted tuble to collecting duct.
7
Q
step 1 of urine formation
A
glomerular filtration:
movement of substances from glom into glom capsule via pressure (filtration) and concentration gradient (diffusion). Proteins and other large molecules do not pass. Equalling an increase colloid osmotic pressure pulling fluid back into glomerulus
diameter of afferent arteriols are biggere then efferent because increased pressure in afferent forces filtrate through glomerulus
8
Q
acute renal failure
A
blood pressure drops from shockm hemorrhaging, dehydration, the afferent arteriole pressure decreases resulting inf filtration rate decreasing.
9
Q
step 2 urine formation
A
tubular reabsorption:
movement of substances from tubular filtrate to interstitial fluid to peritubular capillary via passive or active transport
10
Q
glucose in urine
A
glucose requires active transport. If glucose molecules exceed capacity of active transport, glucose appears in urine. Glucosuria as in diabetes mellitus
11
Q
osmotic diuresis
A
glucosuria causes water to be drawn into renal tubules increasing urine volume
12
Q
nephrontic syndrome
A
occurs when disease increases glomerular membranes permeability and allow proteins to pass into tubules: urine (proteinuria). result in systemic edema
13
Q
step 3 urine formation
A
tubular secretion:
movement of substances from peritubular capillary to interstitial fluid to renal tubule
14
Q
urine formation equation
A
urine vol. = filtration vol. - reabsorption vol. + secretion vol.
or…
urine vol. = filtration vol. + secretion vol. - reabsorption vol
15
Q
kidney stones
A
mineral deposits. May resut in renal inflammation, renal failure or my plug lumen of ureter causing ureteritis and stopping flow of urine. May also plug urethral openeing in bladder. 60% pass naturally but nery painfully.
16
Q
Uring composition
A
- water- 95%
- urea- from amino acid catabolism
- uric acid- from nucleic acid catabolism
- creatinine- from creatine catabolism
- electrolytes- water soluble
17
Q
ureters
A
deliver urine from renal pelvis to urinary bladder
18
Q
ureters structure
A
- mucousal layer: mucous lining is transitional epi. and extends into tubules
- muscular layer: peristalsis begins in pelvis and moves down ureters moving urine into bladder past valve
3.fibrous coat
19
Q
cystitis
A
bladder infection
20
Q
ureteritis
A
ureters infection
21
Q
nephritis
A
kidney infection
22
Q
UTI
A
most common in female due to short urethra
23
Q
urinary bladder
A
storage of urine
24
Q
urinary bladder structure
A
- mucosal layer- tran. epi.
- submucosal layer- CT w/ increased number elastic fibers
- muscular layer- interlaced smoother muscle forms the detrusor muscle and internal urethral sphincter
- serous layer- parietal peritoneum (superior surface only)
25
urethra
convey urine from bladder to expulsion and carry semen
26
structure of urethra
1. mucosal layer
2. muscular layer- smooth muscle. Important in ejaculation
27
bladder stretch receptors
cause urination reflex
1. contraction of detrusor
2. relaxation of internal sphincter
28
external urethral sphincter (Sk Muscle)
flow restriction
29
enuresis
young children may lack unconscious control of external sphincter. Common at night. More common in ADHD children
30
incontinence
loss of micturition control. Caused by spinal cord damage, pregnancy, obesity, age or pathology
31
Stress Urinary Incontinence
inability of the urethra sphincter to properly regulate outflow of urine from bladder due to stretching of pelvic floor muscles and stretching of the connective tissue between the bladder and vigina during pregnancy
32
Urinary life span changes
1. kidney cells decrease in number
2. glomeruli numbers decrease
3. fats deposits in tubules increase which decreases absorption
4. renal blood flow decrease
5. bladder loses elasosmoticticity: decrease vol.
6. urge to urinate delayed until last moment.
33
Function of male reproductive system
produce and discharge of sperm, copulation
34
func of testes
production of sperm cells and testosterone
35
function of seminiferous tubules
site of production of sperm cells from puberty until death
36
sperm cell
func: carry male chromosome
1. head- nucleus with chromosomes
2. midpiece- mitochondria
3. tail
37
testicular cancer
epithelial cells of seminiferous tubules can give rise to
38
epididymis
nutrition and maturation of sperm
sperm can live for 2-3 weeks once mature
39
vas deferens
transport sperm to ejaculatory duct
40
vasectomy
vas deferens is surgically obstrucet to prevent sperm release. Knots, thermal scaring or clips most commonly used
41
reversal of vasectomy
this is a low success procedure
42
seminal gland
1. secrete alkaline fluid to moderate pH of ejaculatory duct and acid from epididymis
2. produce fructose for energy for sperm
3. produce prostaglandine to stimulate musclular contractions in female repro tractto help move sperm
43
prostate gland
1. secrete alkaline fluid to moderate pH of acid from epididymis and in vagina
2. activates sperm
prostatic fluid released at emission when it joins sperm from the vas deferens and seminal fluid
44
prostate hyperiasia
enlargment of prostate due to aging or cancer
45
bulbourethral glands
prduce mucus for lubrication of alkaline fluid. commonly released during arousal
46
Semen
the ejaculate that contains
1. sperm
2. seminal fluid
3. prostatic fluid
4. bulbourethral fluid
47
scrotum
enclose testes and moderate their temp (3 C) below body temp. via movements of smooth muscle
48
penis
1. convey urine
2. convey semen
3. copulatory organ
49
corporual cavernosum
erectile tissue
50
corporus sponglosum
erectile tissue
51
penile urethral
carry urine and semen
52
glans penis
stimulation
53
prepuce
stimulation
54
circumcision
surgical removal of prepuce
55
erection
physical or psychological stimulation- no release- erectile chemicals produced- penile arteries dilate- penile veins constricted by pressure- erection
56
impotency
failure to otain an erection. Temporary impotency may result from alcohol, drugs, psychological factors (performance anxiety) permanent impotency may result from vascular or nerve disorders.
57
orgasm
culmination of stimulation resulting in emission
58
emission
release of sperm, seminal, bulbourethral and prostatic fluid into the urethra (membranous and penile) to form semen.
59
bulbourethral fluid
the fluid expelled from the penis during arousal is mostly bulbourethral fluid but some sperm may exit before full ejaculation
60
ejaculation
rhythmic contractions of smooth muslce @ base of erectile columns: increases pressure forcing semen from penile urethra.
61
flaccid penis
immediately following ejaculation, penile arteries constrict while penile veins dilate resulting in flaccid penis
62
refractory period
subsequent erections not possible for 20 or more minutes
63
urge to urinate following efaculation
removes residual semen from urethra decreasing chance of infection
64
psychological stimulation
emission may occur without ejaculation resulting in temp. pain in the repro. tract. results from loss of psychological stimulation
65
nocturnal emissions/ wet dreams
unconscious emission and efaculation. occur in adolescent males due to increased hormone levels
66
hypothalamus
secretes gonadotropin releasing hormone
67
anterior pituitary
GnRH stimulates release of the gonadotropins called Interstitial Cell Stimulating Hormone (ISCH) and follicle stimulation hormone (FSH)
68
testes/ seminiferous tubules (interstitial cells)
1. stimulated by ICSH to produce testosterone
2. stimulated by FSH and testosterone to begin spermatogenesis
3. as sperm counts increased, secretion of inhibin by testes inhibits: hypothalamus from secreting GnRH and ant. pit/ from secreting gonadotropins
69
increased levels testosterone
will inhibit ant. pit. and hypothalamus from secretin actions of testosterone
70
Male process
1. masculinization of embryo
2. descent of testes en utero
3. enlargement of testes @ puberty
4. secondary sex characteristics
71
secondary sex characteristics
1. increased body hair
2. increased thyroid cartilage size
3. deeper voice
4. thicker skin
5. increased muslce mass
6. wider shoulders
7. thicker bones
8. increased hematocrit
9. increased libido
10. increased emotional sensitivity, increased desire for communication, dedication to long term relationships, and a need to "cuddle"
72
testosterone levels decrease
as males age
73
ovary
production of gametes (eggs)/hormones
74
ovary follicles
cavities within ovary containing oocytes
75
primary oocytes
diploid cells that give rise to eggs. 1 follicle
76
secondary oocyte
haploid cells capable of being fertilized
77
follicle maturation
at puberty FSH released by ant. pit. initiates: follicle maturation phase, luteal phase
78
follicle maturation phase
primordial follicles- primary follicles- secondary follicles- mature follicle- ovulation of secondary oocyte via luteinizing hormone (LH)
79
luteal phase
corpus luteum formed from ruptured mature follicle- progesterone and estrogen secreted- if pregnancy occurs CL continues to secrete preventing menstruation- without pregnancy, corpus luteum degenerates- replace by corpus albicans
80
fertility drugs
increase the number of follicles that mature each month
81
oogenesis
1. each month 1 primary oocyte continues meiosis resulting in a haploid secondary oocyte and a polar body
2. secondary haploid oocytes ovulated
3. if fertilized, secondary oocyte completes meiosis resulting in a diploid zygote and another haploid polar body.
82
teratomas
when ovarian cells differentiate in situ, teratomas, or dermoid cysts form. teratomas may contain hair, teeth, thyroid tissue, sebum and derivatives of all three embryonci germ layers. May become cancerous in females and almost always in males.
83
uterine/ fallopian tubes
transport secondary oocyte/ zygote to uterus via peristalsis and ciliary actionh. Fimbriae do not contact ovary. Homologous to vas deferens
84
tubal ligation
surgical sectioning of the oviducts prevents oocyte from being fertilized
85
uterus
houses developing embryo
86
fundus of uterus
apex of body
87
cervix of uterus
neck of chamber opening into uterus
88
Histology of uterus
1. endometrium 2. myometrium 3. perimetrium
89
endometrium
mucosal epithelium. Shed each month. Func: formation and maintenance of placenta
90
myometrium
thick, smooth muslce with CT
func: physically support developing fetus, expel baby @ birth
91
perimetrium
outer serosal layer
92
endometriosis
occurs when endometrial cells migrate up oviducts and escape into and then implant in the abdominopelvic cavity. If fertilized eggs take the same route, results in ectopic intestinal pregnancy
93
Vagina
copulatory organ, passage of baby
94
fornix
thinnest protion of viginal wall
95
hymen
thin CT and epi. membrane surrounding vaginal orfice
no func but clinically important as it may serve as indicator of virginity
96
Labia majora
protect other ext. structures. Contain hair sebaceous and sweat glands. Homologous to scrotum
97
Labia minor
enclose vestibule, minor arousal response
98
clitoris
arousal. Homologous to glands and contains corpora cavernosa and glans
99
vestibule
1. urethra
2. vestibular glands, hormologous to bulbourethral glands
100
mammary glands
produce milk
101
alveolar/ lactiferous glands
milk production
102
lactiferous ducts
collect and trans. milk
103
lactiferous sinus
collects milk during active nursing
104
nipple
discharge of milk, suckling, sensory
105
areola
discharge sebum to protect nipple, erectile tissue during arousal
106
suspensory ligaments
support and attach breast to pectoralis major fascia and overlying dermis
107
stretching period
as breasts enlarge due to weight gain or lactation, suspensory ligaments stretch causing sagging of the breasts. Their recoil ability is a function of age and duration of stretching period.
108
breast cancer
results from epithelial cells of the lactiferous ducts. Leading cause of death in women from 35-45 yrs. occurs in men also
109
risk factors for breast cancer
1. genetics
2. early menarche, late menopause
3. first pregnancy after 30 yrs
4. smoking
5. alcohol
6. high fat diet
7. increase number x-rays
110
dense breasts
breasts with numerous lactiferous glands and collagen fibers that block with rays used in mammograms
111
estrogen
develop lactiferous ducts and breast fat
112
progesterone
develop alveolar glands
113
lactogen
increase breast dev. and inhibit action of prolactin
114
prolactin
prod. of milk and inhibit gonadotropin secretion: no menstruation
cannot work in presence of lactogen: milk prod occurs post partum after placenta is shed
115
colustrum
watery fluid with increased proteins and antibodies but decrease lactose or lipids is secreted during these 2-3 days
116
oxytocin
contraction of uterus and myoepithelial cells lining alveolar glands: expelling milk (let-down reflex)
117
Every Pregnancy and Labor Produces Oxytocin
Estrogen
Progesterone
Lactogen
Prolactin
Oxytocin
118
post-partum uterus
has been stretched to 15x normal size. Oxytocin released during breast feeding causes uterine contractions which help bring uterus back to size after several months.
for this reason, baby encouraged to feed immed, post-partum to help expel placenta
119
hypothalamus stimulation
not stimulated for 1 week: prolactin decreased and milk prod. stops, menstruation returns as prolactin no longer inhibits gonadoptropin prd.
120
child weaned
if weaned all at once, breasts engorge with milk causing increased pain. Best to decrease feeding slowly to gradually decrease prod. of milk
121
femal refractory
females do not experience a refractory period. Also, no gamets discharge during orgasm.
122
estrogen (fem)
cause maturation of primary sexual charac. and 1. breast dev. 2. increase adipose in subcutaneous, thigh buttocks 3. increase skin vascularization
123
progesterones (fem)
regulates menstrual cycle, dev. of endometrium during preg. and regulates release of gonadotropins in ant. pit.
124
androgens (fem)
secreted by adrenal cortex and ovaries. func: growth of pubic, leg and exillary hair
androgens are converted into estrogen by adipose tissue
125
decreased adipose levels
result in decrease estrogen levels. If estrogen levels decrease too much, menstrual flow diminished (oligomenorrhea) or stopped (amenorrhea)
common in competitive femal athletes e.g. gymansts, marathon runners
126
uterine cycle
mentraul- proliferative phase- secretory phase
127
menstrual
endometrial functional layer sloughs off with bleeding
128
proliferative phase
endometrial functional layer replaced, glands, and vessels increase via follicular estrogen. Ovulation @ end of state
129
secretory phase
vascularization and glands increase number via corpus luteum progesterone. glands secrete nutrients for unimplanted embryo. LH from CL and embryo prevents menses. Without preg. vessels deteriorate
130
menopause
ovaries decrease response to gonadotropins (FSH, LH) after 40+ yrs: no ovulation: decrease estrogen and progesterone
131
menopause results
1. breasts, vagina, uterus, obiducts shrink
2. pubic, head and exillary hair thin
3. decrease uterine and vestubular secretions = dry vagina
4. osteoporosis
5. skin thins
132
fertilization
sperm penetrates corona radiata- sperm penetrates zona pellucida- gamete membranes fuse, sperm tail drops- fertilization membrane formed- meiosis completed- nuclei fuse forming zygote
133
cleavage stage (prenatal dev)
timing: 30 hrs- end 2nd week
stages: zygot- blastocyst
events: period of mitotic division of non-specialized cells (undetermined cells)
134
embryonic stage (prenatal dev)
timing: end 2nd week- end week 8
stages: embryonic
events: cells determined and germ layers for early tissue layers. Placenta completed by end of week 5. Organogenesis begins
135
fetal stageprino (prenatal dev)
timing: weeks 9-38
stages: fetal
events: organogenesis (formation of organs)
136
hypotheses of Aging step 1
1. genetically programmed agin hypothesis; centeral nervous system control- CNS causes decrease groth hormone, decrease metaolic rate and adrenal secretions: decrease resistance to stress and immunity.
137
hypotheses of aging step 2
genetically programmed aging hypothesis cell controlled- cells reach limit of 50 mitotic divisions as telomeres are lost: teissues cannot be repaired
138
telomeres
non-coding sequences of DNA at tips of schromosome that permit cellular division when present. Portions lost with each cell division
139
Harmful gene hypothesis
harmful genes turn on as we age altering anatomy and physiology
140
gene mutation hypthesis
mutations accumulate and hinder cells physiology
141
cross linkage hypothesis
molecules for cross-links between regions of their structure that would not normally be linked hindering normal function
142
free radical hypthesis
molecules with unpaired electrons react with oxygen to produce tissue damage
143
cellular garbage hypothesis
accumulation of inert intracellular chemicals interferes with cellular physiology
144
wear and tear hypothesis
cells can only process a preset amount of energy before wearing out
145
immune deterioration hypothesis
lymphatic sys deteriorates with age inadequately defending against disease. Autoimmune disorders may occur
BI 122
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