Unit 4 Lecture Aphy 101 Class > unit 4 lecture aphy 101 > Flashcards

unit 4 lecture aphy 101 Flashcards

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1
Q

What does the central nervous system (CNS) consist of?

A
  • Brain
  • Spinal cord

The CNS is the largest and most complex portion of the nervous system.

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2
Q

What are the three layers of the meninges?

A
  • Dura mater
  • Arachnoid mater
  • Pia mater

The meninges protect the brain and spinal cord.

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3
Q

What is the function of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)?

A
  • Nutritive and protective of CNS neurons
  • Helps maintain stable ionic concentrations in the CNS
  • Circulates in ventricles, central canal, and subarachnoid space

CSF is produced in the ventricles and absorbed by arachnoid granulations.

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4
Q

What is a concussion?

A

A mild TBI; typically results from a one-time injury and has no lasting symptoms

Concussions are a type of traumatic brain injury.

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5
Q

What can increase intracranial pressure (ICP)?

A
  • Infection
  • Tumor
  • Blood clot

Interference with circulation of CSF can lead to increased ICP.

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6
Q

What are the major portions of the adult brain?

A
  • Cerebrum
  • Diencephalon
  • Cerebellum
  • Brainstem (midbrain, pons, medulla oblongata)

Each portion has distinct functions and structures.

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7
Q

The cerebral cortex is responsible for what higher mental functions?

A
  • Interpreting impulses from sensory organs
  • Initiating voluntary movements
  • Storing and retrieving information
  • Reasoning

The cerebral cortex is the outermost layer of the cerebrum.

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8
Q

What are the five lobes of the cerebral hemispheres?

A
  • Frontal lobe
  • Parietal lobe
  • Temporal lobe
  • Occipital lobe
  • Insula

Four of the lobes are named for the bones that they underlie.

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9
Q

What is the function of the thalamus?

A

Gateway for sensory impulses ascending to cerebral cortex

The thalamus channels sensory impulses to appropriate parts of the cerebral cortex for interpretation.

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10
Q

What does the hypothalamus regulate?

A
  • Heart rate
  • Blood pressure
  • Body temperature
  • Water and electrolyte balance
  • Hunger
  • Sleep and wakefulness

The hypothalamus maintains homeostasis and links nervous and endocrine systems.

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11
Q

What are the three parts of the brainstem?

A
  • Midbrain
  • Pons
  • Medulla oblongata

The brainstem connects the brain to the spinal cord.

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12
Q

What is the function of the cerebellum?

A
  • Integrates sensory information concerning position of body parts
  • Coordinates skeletal muscle activity
  • Maintains posture

The cerebellum is located inferior to the occipital lobes.

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13
Q

What are the four types of brain waves recorded by EEG?

A
  • Alpha
  • Beta
  • Theta
  • Delta

Each type of brain wave corresponds to different states of consciousness.

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14
Q

What is the spinal cord continuous with?

A

Brain and brainstem

The spinal cord extends downward through the vertebral canal.

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15
Q

What are the two enlargements of the spinal cord?

A
  • Cervical enlargement
  • Lumbar enlargement

These enlargements supply nerves to the upper and lower limbs, respectively.

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16
Q

What is the function of the reticular formation?

A
  • Filters incoming sensory information
  • Arouses cerebral cortex into state of wakefulness

The reticular formation connects various parts of the brain and regulates sleep.

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17
Q

What is Parkinson Disease (PD) characterized by?

A
  • Degeneration of neurons in the substantia nigra
  • Dopamine deficiency
  • Motor problems such as tremors and rigidity

PD has no cure but can be treated with Levodopa.

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18
Q

What are the two main functions of the spinal cord?

A
  • Center for spinal reflexes
  • Conduit for impulses to and from the brain

The spinal cord plays a crucial role in reflex actions and communication between the brain and the body.

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19
Q

What is a reflex arc?

A
  • Sensory receptor
  • 2 or more neurons
  • Effector

A reflex arc is the neural pathway involved in a reflex action.

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20
Q

True or false: A monosynaptic reflex contains more than two neurons.

A

FALSE

A monosynaptic reflex contains only two neurons: a sensory neuron and a motor neuron.

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21
Q

What is the function of the cauda equina?

A

Group of lumbar and sacral nerves extending downward from conus medullaris

The cauda equina is crucial for innervating the lower body.

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22
Q

What are the major ascending (sensory) spinal cord tracts?

A
  • Fasciculus gracilis
  • Fasciculus cuneatus
  • Spinothalamic tracts
  • Spinocerebellar tracts

These tracts conduct sensory impulses to the brain.

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23
Q

What are the major descending (motor) spinal cord tracts?

A
  • Corticospinal tracts
  • Reticulospinal tracts

These tracts conduct motor impulses from the brain to muscles and glands.

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24
Q

What is Amyotropic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) also known as?

A

Lou Gehrig’s Disease

ALS involves degeneration of motor neurons and leads to severe muscle weakness.

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25
What are the **subdivisions of the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)**?
* Somatic nervous system * Autonomic nervous system ## Footnote The PNS connects the CNS to the rest of the body.
26
What does the **autonomic nervous system (ANS)** control?
* Smooth muscle * Cardiac muscle * Glands ## Footnote The ANS regulates involuntary bodily functions.
27
What are the **two divisions** of the autonomic nervous system?
* Sympathetic division * Parasympathetic division ## Footnote These divisions prepare the body for different types of responses.
28
What is the **function** of the **filum terminale**?
Anchors spinal cord to coccyx ## Footnote The filum terminale is a connective tissue structure that stabilizes the spinal cord.
29
What is a **dermatome**?
An area of skin innervated by sensory nerve fibers of a particular spinal nerve ## Footnote Dermatomes are important for diagnosing nerve root injuries.
30
What is the **function** of the **gray commissure**?
Surrounds central canal ## Footnote The gray commissure connects the two sides of the gray matter in the spinal cord.
31
What is the **anterior median fissure**?
Groove that extends the whole length of the spinal cord ## Footnote This fissure separates the two halves of the spinal cord.
32
What are the **connective tissue coverings** of peripheral nerves?
* Endoneurium * Perineurium * Epineurium ## Footnote These coverings protect and organize the nerve fibers.
33
What is the **largest and longest nerve** in the body?
Sciatic nerve ## Footnote The sciatic nerve supplies muscles and skin of the thighs, legs, and feet.
34
What is the **function** of the **vagus nerve (X)**?
* Somatic motor impulses to pharynx and larynx * Autonomic motor impulses to heart and viscera ## Footnote The vagus nerve plays a crucial role in regulating heart rate and digestive processes.
35
What is the **function** of the **trigeminal nerve (V)**?
* Sensory from face * Motor to muscles of mastication ## Footnote The trigeminal nerve is the largest cranial nerve and has both sensory and motor functions.
36
What is the **function** of the **accessory nerve (XI)**?
Motor impulses to muscles of neck and back ## Footnote The accessory nerve is involved in shoulder and neck movement.
37
What are the **two types of senses**?
* General senses * Special senses ## Footnote General senses are widely distributed throughout the body, while special senses have specialized receptors confined to structures in the head.
38
The **preganglionic neurons** of the sympathetic division originate in which spinal levels?
T1 to L2 ## Footnote This division is also known as the thoracolumbar division.
39
What is the role of **postganglionic fibers** in the autonomic nervous system?
* Extend to visceral effectors * Run from sympathetic ganglia to peripheral effectors ## Footnote Postganglionic fibers originate in ganglia and are crucial for transmitting signals to target organs.
40
Fill in the blank: The **parasympathetic division** is also known as the _______.
Craniosacral division ## Footnote Preganglionic neurons originate in the brainstem and sacral spinal levels.
41
What neurotransmitter do **cholinergic neurons** release?
Acetylcholine ## Footnote This includes all preganglionic sympathetic and parasympathetic fibers.
42
What are the **two types of adrenergic receptors**?
* Alpha receptors * Beta receptors ## Footnote These receptors bind to epinephrine and norepinephrine and elicit different responses.
43
True or false: The **hypothalamus** is responsible for controlling autonomic activity.
TRUE ## Footnote The hypothalamus regulates visceral functions and is a key control center for the autonomic nervous system.
44
What happens to brain cells as a person ages?
* Brain cells begin to die before birth * Brain shrinks 10% over a lifetime * More gray matter than white matter is lost ## Footnote Aging affects brain structure and function, leading to cognitive changes.
45
What are the **five types of sensory receptors**?
* Chemoreceptors * Pain receptors (nociceptors) * Thermoreceptors * Mechanoreceptors * Photoreceptors ## Footnote Each type responds to specific stimuli and plays a role in sensory perception.
46
Fill in the blank: **Sensation** occurs when action potentials make the brain aware of a sensory event, while **perception** occurs when the brain _______.
interprets sensory impulses ## Footnote Sensation and perception are distinct processes in sensory processing.
47
What are the **three groups of general senses**?
* Exteroceptive senses * Interoceptive (visceroceptive) senses * Proprioceptive senses ## Footnote Each group is associated with different types of sensory information.
48
What types of **mechanoreceptors** respond to touch and pressure?
* Free nerve endings * Tactile (Meissner’s) corpuscles * Lamellated (Pacinian) corpuscles ## Footnote These receptors are specialized for detecting different aspects of touch and pressure.
49
What are the **two types of thermoreceptors**?
* Warm receptors * Cold receptors ## Footnote These receptors are sensitive to different temperature ranges.
50
What is **referred pain**?
Pain that feels as if it is coming from another part of the body ## Footnote This occurs due to common nerve pathways where sensory impulses from visceral organs and skin synapse with the same neuron.
51
What are the **two types of pain fibers**?
* Fast pain (A-delta) fibers * Slow pain (C) fibers ## Footnote These fibers differ in their conduction speed and the type of pain they transmit.
52
What are **proprioceptors**?
Mechanoreceptors that send information to CNS about body position ## Footnote They include lamellated corpuscles, muscle spindles, and Golgi tendon organs.
53
What are the **types of special senses**?
* Smell * Taste * Hearing and equilibrium * Sight ## Footnote Special senses have complex sensory organs located in the head.
54
What do **olfactory receptors** respond to?
Chemicals dissolved in liquids ## Footnote They are crucial for the sense of smell and contribute significantly to the sense of taste.
55
What is the **leading hypothesis for encoding specific smells**?
Each olfactory receptor cell contains only 1 type of membrane protein ## Footnote This allows the brain to interpret different smells based on binding patterns.
56
Where are **olfactory receptors** located?
In the **nasal cavity**, above the pathway of inhaled air ## Footnote Olfactory receptors are responsible for the sense of smell.
57
True or false: **Olfactory receptors** undergo sensory adaptation rapidly.
TRUE ## Footnote The sense of smell drops by 50% within 1 second after stimulation.
58
What is the **function** of taste buds?
Organs of **taste** ## Footnote Located on papillae of tongue, roof of mouth, linings of cheeks, and walls of pharynx.
59
How many **taste buds** are there approximately?
About **10,000** taste buds ## Footnote Each taste bud contains 50 to 150 taste cells.
60
List the **five primary taste sensations**.
* Sweet: Stimulated by carbohydrates * Sour: Stimulated by acids * Salty: Stimulated by salts * Bitter: Stimulated by many organic compounds, Mg and Ca salts * Umami: Stimulated by some amino acids, MSG ## Footnote Each flavor results from one primary taste sensation or a combination.
61
What cranial nerves conduct sensory impulses from taste receptor cells?
* Facial nerve (VII) * Glossopharyngeal nerve (IX) * Vagus nerve (X) ## Footnote Impulses travel to the medulla oblongata and then to the thalamus.
62
What is the **function** of the **tympanic reflex**?
To lessen the transfer of sound vibrations to the inner ear ## Footnote This reflex prevents damage to hearing receptors during loud sounds.
63
What are the **three sections** of the ear?
* Outer/external ear * Middle ear * Inner/internal ear ## Footnote Each section has distinct structures and functions related to hearing and balance.
64
What is **otitis media**?
Middle ear infection ## Footnote Occurs due to bacteria traveling from throat or nasal passages to the middle ear.
65
What are the two types of **hearing loss**?
* Conductive Deafness * Sensorineural Deafness ## Footnote Conductive deafness is caused by interference with sound conduction, while sensorineural deafness involves damage to the cochlea or auditory nerve.
66
What is the **function** of the **spiral organ (organ of Corti)**?
Organ for **sense of hearing** ## Footnote Contains hair cells that generate nerve impulses in response to sound vibrations.
67
What are the **two membrane-covered windows** in the wall of the bony labyrinth?
* Oval window * Round window ## Footnote These windows facilitate the transfer of vibrations to the fluid of the inner ear.
68
What is the **function** of the **vestibule** in the inner ear?
Functions in **static equilibrium** ## Footnote It senses the position of the head when the body is not moving.
69
What is the **role** of the **lacrimal apparatus**?
Tear production and drainage ## Footnote It includes the lacrimal gland, canaliculi, lacrimal sac, and nasolacrimal duct.
70
What are the **six extrinsic eye muscles** responsible for?
* Superior rectus * Inferior rectus * Medial rectus * Lateral rectus * Superior oblique * Inferior oblique ## Footnote These muscles control eye movement.
71
What is the **function** of the **iris**?
Controls light entering the eye ## Footnote It consists of connective tissue and smooth muscle.
72
What is **refraction**?
Bending of light when passing between mediums of different densities ## Footnote It is essential for focusing images on the retina.
73
What is the **function** of the **ciliary body**?
Changes lens shape for focusing ## Footnote It contains ciliary muscles that adjust the lens for accommodation.
74
What is the **macula lutea**?
Yellowish spot in the retina ## Footnote It contains the fovea centralis, which produces the sharpest vision.
75
What forms a **lens** when a surface between different refractive media is curved?
A surface between different refractive media ## Footnote Lenses can be convex or concave, affecting how light is refracted.
76
What do **convex lenses** do to light waves?
Cause light waves to converge ## Footnote Similar to the cornea and lens of the eye.
77
What do **concave lenses** do to light waves?
Cause light waves to diverge ## Footnote This is the opposite effect of convex lenses.
78
What percentage of refraction occurs in the **cornea**?
75% ## Footnote Refraction also occurs as light passes through the lens.
79
Where is the **image focused** in the eye?
On the retina ## Footnote The image is upside down and reversed from left to right.
80
What corrects the **reversals** of the image focused on the retina?
Visual cortex ## Footnote The brain interprets the image to present it correctly.
81
What is **presbyopia**?
Farsightedness of age ## Footnote Begins after age of 45 due to loss of elasticity of lens capsule.
82
What causes **nearsightedness (myopia)**?
Eyeball is too long ## Footnote Light focuses in front of the retina, creating blurry images for distant objects.
83
What causes **farsightedness (hyperopia)**?
Eyeball is too short ## Footnote Light focuses behind the retina, creating blurry images for close objects.
84
What is **astigmatism**?
Defect in curvature of cornea or lens ## Footnote Some parts of the image are in focus, while others are not.
85
What are the two types of **photoreceptors** in the retina?
* Rods * Cones ## Footnote Rods provide vision in dim light, while cones provide sharp images and color vision.
86
What pigment do **rods** contain?
Rhodopsin ## Footnote It is light-sensitive and allows vision in shades of gray.
87
What pigments do **cones** contain?
* Erythrolabe * Chlorolabe * Cyanolabe ## Footnote Each type of cone is sensitive to different wavelengths of light.
88
What is the function of the **fovea centralis**?
Contains only cones ## Footnote It is responsible for sharp central vision.
89
What is **stereoscopic vision**?
Perception of distance, depth, height, and width of objects ## Footnote It results from the formation of two slightly different retinal images from the eyes.
90
What is the pathway of visual information from the retina to the **visual cortex**?
Ganglion cells → optic nerve → optic chiasma → optic tracts → thalamus → optic radiations → visual cortex ## Footnote Some fibers branch off for visual reflexes before reaching the thalamus.
91
What causes **age-related hearing loss**?
* Damage to hair cells in spiral organ * Degeneration of neural pathways to the brain ## Footnote Tinnitus may also occur.
92
What are some **age-related visual problems**?
* Dry eyes * Floaters * Loss of elasticity of lens (presbyopia) * Glaucoma * Cataracts * Macular degeneration ## Footnote These issues can affect vision as one ages.
93
What causes **anosmia**?
Loss of olfactory receptors ## Footnote This condition affects the sense of smell.
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