1
Q
How many toes does each foot have?
A
Each foot has five toes (digits).
2
Q
How are the toes numbered?
A
They are numbered one through five from the medial side.
3
Q
How many phalanges does the great toe have?
A
The great toe (first digit) has two phalanges: proximal and distal.
4
Q
How many phalanges do the second through fifth toes have?
A
Each has three phalanges: proximal, middle, and distal.
5
Q
How many metatarsals are in the foot?
A
There are five metatarsals.
6
Q
How are metatarsals numbered?
A
They are numbered one through five from the medial side.
7
Q
What are the three main parts of a metatarsal bone?
A
Head (distal), body (shaft), and base (proximal).
8
Q
Which metatarsal is a common fracture site?
A
The base of the 5th metatarsal.
9
Q
What does IP stand for, and where is it located?
A
Interphalangeal joint — between the proximal and distal phalanges of the great toe.
10
Q
What does DIP stand for?
A
Distal Interphalangeal Joint — between the middle and distal phalanges of the 2nd–5th toes.
11
Q
What does PIP stand for?
A
Proximal Interphalangeal Joint — between the proximal and middle phalanges of the 2nd–5th toes.
12
Q
What does MP stand for?
A
Metatarsophalangeal Joint — between the head of each metatarsal and the base of the proximal phalanx.
13
Q
What does TM stand for?
A
Tarsometatarsal Joint — between the tarsal bones and the bases of the metatarsals.
14
Q
Which tarsometatarsal joint is used as the centering point for the foot?
A
The 3rd tarsometatarsal joint.
15
Q
Where are sesamoid bones usually located in the foot?
A
On the plantar surface near the head of the first metatarsal, close to the MP joint.
16
Q
Where are sesamoid bones embedded?
A
In tendons
17
Q
How do you position for prone and supine sesamoid bones?
A
Prone or supine. Free of superimposition, minimum of 3 metatarsals seen
18
Q
Tarsal mnemonic?
A
Come = Calcaneus
To = Talus
Colorado (the) = Cuboid
Next = Navicular
3 Christmases = 3 Cuneiforms
19
Q
What is the heel bone known as?
A
Calcaneus, or os calcis.
20
Q
What is another name for the calcaneus?
A
The os calcis or heel bone.
21
Q
Which tarsal bone is the largest and strongest?
A
The calcaneus.
22
Q
Which bone does the calcaneus articulate with anteriorly?
A
The cuboid.
23
Q
Which bone does the calcaneus articulate with superiorly?
A
The talus.
24
Q
What joint is formed between the talus and calcaneus?
A
The subtalar joint.
25
What is the function of the subtalar joint?
It transmits the body’s weight to the ground.
26
What is the position of the talus in the foot?
It lies between the lower leg bones and the calcaneus.
27
What bones articulate with the talus superiorly?
The tibia and fibula.
28
What bone articulates with the talus inferiorly?
The calcaneus.
29
What bone articulates with the talus anteriorly?
The navicular.
30
What makes the talus unique among tarsal bones?
It’s the only tarsal bone directly involved in the ankle joint.
31
What is the shape of the navicular bone?
Flattened and oval.
32
Where is the navicular located?
On the medial side of the foot between the talus and the three cuneiforms.
33
What bones does the navicular articulate with?
Talus (posteriorly) and the three cuneiforms (anteriorly).
34
How many cuneiform bones are there?
Three — medial, intermediate, and lateral.
35
Where are the cuneiforms located in relation to other bones?
Between the first three metatarsals (distally) and the navicular (proximally).
36
Which cuneiform is the largest?
The medial (first) cuneiform.
37
Which bones articulate with the medial cuneiform?
1st and 2nd metatarsals (distally) and the intermediate cuneiform (laterally).
38
What bones articulate with the intermediate cuneiform?
2nd metatarsal (distally), navicular (proximally), and medial/lateral cuneiforms on either side.
39
What bones articulate with the lateral cuneiform?
Navicular (proximally), 2nd–4th metatarsals (distally), intermediate cuneiform (medially), and cuboid (laterally).
40
Where is the cuboid located?
On the lateral aspect of the foot between the calcaneus and the 4th and 5th metatarsals.
41
What bones articulate with the cuboid?
Calcaneus (proximally), lateral cuneiform (medially), 4th and 5th metatarsals (distally), and sometimes the navicular.
42
What is the purpose of the foot’s arches?
To provide strong, shock-absorbing support for body weight.
43
What are the two main arches of the foot?
The longitudinal arch and the transverse arch.
44
Where does the longitudinal arch run?
Along the length of the foot.
45
Where does the transverse arch run?
Across the plantar surface at the distal tarsals and tarsometatarsal joints.
46
Which arch is this?
Longitudinal
47
Which arch is this?
Transverse
48
What bones form the ankle joint?
The tibia, fibula, and talus.
49
What is the expanded distal end of the fibula called?
The lateral malleolus.
50
What is the elongated process on the distal tibia called?
The medial malleolus.
51
What is the 'ankle mortise'?
A deep socket formed by the inferior tibia and fibula articulating with the superior talus.
52
How is the ankle mortise best demonstrated radiographically?
With a 15° medial oblique projection, known as a mortise view.
53
What structure partially overlaps the fibula anteriorly?
The anterior tubercle of the tibia.
54
What is the tibial plafond?
The distal tibial joint surface forming the roof of the ankle mortise joint.
55
How does the distal fibula sit in relation to the distal tibia?
It lies approximately ½ inch posterior and ½ inch inferior to the distal tibia.
56
How will the malleoli appear on a true lateral ankle radiograph?
The lateral malleolus will be ½ inch posterior and distal to the medial malleolus.
57
What type of joint is the ankle joint classified as?
Primarily a hinge joint. Talocrural joint: just hinge/ginglymus
Entire ankle complex with both talocrural and subtalar joint: Sellar or saddle
58
What injury can result from lateral stress on the collateral ligaments of the ankle?
A sprained ankle.
59
Ankle criteria
Distal 1/3 of tibia and fibula demonstrated
Proximal 1/2 of metatarsals included
Medial and superior aspect of ankle joint open
60
What is this?
AP Ankle
61
What is this?
AP Mortise oblique Ankle
62
What is this?
AP oblique Ankle
63
What is this?
AP Ankle
64
What is this?
AP Mortise oblique Ankle
65
What is this?
AP oblique Ankle
66
What is the purpose of an AP ankle?
A baseline image
67
What is the purpose of an AP mortise ankle?
Opens up the mortise joint which connects the lower end of the tibia and fibula to the upper surface of the talus
68
What is the purpose of an oblique ankle?
Opens the tibiofibular joint
69
Which lower leg bone is larger and weight-bearing?
The tibia.
70
What are the two main parts of the tibia?
The body (shaft) and two extremities (proximal and distal).
71
What structures are located on the proximal end of the tibia?
The medial and lateral condyles.
72
What are the small prominences between the tibial condyles called?
The medial and lateral intercondylar tubercles (forming the intercondylar eminence).
73
What is the smooth, concave articular surface on top of the tibia called?
The tibial plateau/articular facets.
74
What is the angle of posterior slope for the tibial plateau?
10° to 20° posteriorly to the long axis of the tibia.
75
Why is the posterior slope of the tibial plateau important radiographically?
It helps to demonstrate an open joint space on an AP knee projection.
76
What is the tibial tuberosity?
A rough prominence on the anterior proximal tibia, where the patellar tendon attaches.
77
What is the long central portion of the tibia called?
The body or shaft.
78
What is the palpable ridge along the anterior surface of the tibial body known as?
The anterior crest or 'shin bone.'
79
What is the distal projection on the medial side of the tibia called?
The medial malleolus.
80
What is the fibular notch?
A triangular-shaped depression on the distal tibia that articulates with the fibula.
81
Which bone is smaller — the tibia or fibula?
The fibula.
82
Where is the fibula located in relation to the tibia?
Lateral and slightly posterior to the tibia.
83
What bones does the fibula articulate with?
The tibia (proximally and distally) and the talus (distally).
84
What is the proximal expanded portion of the fibula called?
The fibular head.
85
What does the fibular head articulate with?
The posteroinferior surface of the lateral condyle of the tibia.
86
What is the pointed process above the fibular head called?
The apex of the fibula.
87
What is the tapered region just below the fibular head called?
The neck of the fibula.
88
What is the long slender portion of the fibula called?
The body or shaft.
89
What is the enlarged distal end of the fibula called?
The lateral malleolus.
90
What part of the ankle joint does the lateral malleolus form?
The palpable bony prominence on the lateral aspect of the ankle.
91
How many tibiofibular joints are there?
Two — proximal and distal.
92
What type of joint is the proximal tibiofibular joint?
A synovial, diarthrodial gliding joint.
93
What type of joint is the distal tibiofibular joint?
A fibrous syndesmosis joint (only slightly movable, or amphiarthrodial).
94
Which joint of the leg is not freely movable?
The distal tibiofibular joint.
95
What is the anterior surface/top of the foot called?
Dorsum pedis
96
What is the posterior surface/sole of the foot called?
Plantar surface
97
What is an AP equal to in a foot?
AP = DP (dorsoplantar)
98
What is a PA equal to in a foot?
PA = PD (plantardorsal)
99
What is dorsiflexion?
Decreasing the angle between the dorsum (top) of the foot and the anterior part of the lower leg.
100
What is plantar flexion?
Pointing the foot and toes downward.
101
What is inversion (varus)?
Turning the ankle and subtalar joint inward.
102
What is eversion (valgus)?
Turning or bending the ankle outward.
103
How should all body parts be oriented on the image receptor (IR)?
In the same direction.
104
What kVp range is typically used for lower limb radiography?
Low to medium kVp (60–80).
105
What focal spot size is recommended?
A small focal spot for detail.
106
What exposure time is ideal?
Short exposure time to reduce motion blur.
107
What should be done to ensure adequate image density?
Use sufficient mAs.
108
Where should radiographic markers be placed?
In the light field but outside of pertinent anatomy.
109
How do exposure factors change when imaging through a cast?
They must be increased.
110
What is a trimalleolar fracture?
A fracture involving the medial and lateral malleoli and the posterior tip of the distal tibia.
111
What is a common fracture site on the foot?
The base of the 5th metatarsal.
112
What is Osgood-Schlatter disease?
A condition where the patellar tendon pulls away from the tibial tuberosity due to overuse or stress.
113
In what population is Osgood-Schlatter disease most common?
Athletic young males aged 10–15 years.
114
On which radiographic view is Osgood-Schlatter disease best seen?
Lateral knee or tibia/fibula view.
115
What projections are typically done for the toes?
AP, oblique, and lateral.
116
What is the central ray (CR) angle for the AP projection of the toes and where is it directed?
10–15° toward the heel (posterior to MTP joint). Flat feet don't need a big angle, use 10 degrees. High arches need a big angle, use 15 degrees.
117
AP toe criteria
Digits and min 1/2 of metatarsal
No soft tissue overlap
IP and MTP joints open
118
Where is the CR directed for oblique toe projections and what angle?
Oblique: NO ANGLE, CR to MTP joint
119
Oblique toe criteria
Digits and min distal 1/2 metatarsal
IP and MTP joints open
Increased concavity on one side of shaft
Heads of metatarsals are not overlapped
120
Where is the CR directed for a lateral toe projection?
To the proximal interphalangeal (PIP) joint. (no angle)
121
Lateral toe criteria
Digits in true lateral
IP and MTP joints open
Free of superimposition
122
How are sesamoid bones in toes imaged?
Pressing toes dorsiflexed or pulling toes dorsiflexed
123
Sesamoid toe criteria
Free of superimposition
Min 3 metatarsals seen
124
How are the 1st-3rd toes positioned for oblique projections?
Foot rotated medially.
125
How are the 4th-5th toes positioned for oblique projections?
Foot rotated laterally.
126
How can you isolate a single toe for the lateral view?
The patient can hold back the other toes or use sponges, tape, or tongue depressors.
127
What projection is an AP foot technically called?
A dorsoplantar (DP) projection.
128
What is the CR angle for an AP foot?
10° toward the heel (posteriorly).
129
Where is the CR directed for the AP foot?
To the base of the 3rd metatarsal.
130
When should you avoid using an angle on the AP foot?
When the indication is a foreign body (to avoid distortion).
131
AP foot criteria
Entire foot visualized
No metatarsal rotation
MTP joints generally open
132
How is the foot positioned for an oblique projection?
Rotate the foot medially 30–40°.
133
What is the criteria for a medial oblique foot?
Entire foot visualized
3-5th metatarsals free of superimposition
Tuberosity demonstrated at base of 5th metatarsal
134
Where is the CR directed for a lateral foot projection?
To the medial cuneiform.
135
Lateral foot criteria
Entire foot visualized
Tibiotalar joint demonstrated
Metatarsals superimposed
136
Which surface of the foot is typically in contact with the IR for a lateral projection?
The lateral surface (mediolateral projection).
137
What is the name of the standard axial projection for the calcaneus?
Plantodorsal axial projection.
138
How should the foot be positioned for the plantodorsal axial view?
Dorsiflexed, with the foot perpendicular to the IR (use a sheet or tape if necessary).
139
What is the CR angle and entry point for the plantodorsal calcaneus projection?
40° cephalad, entering at the base of the 3rd metatarsal.
140
Plantodorsal calcaneus criteria
Entire calcaneus visualized
No rotation
141
Where is the CR directed for a lateral calcaneus projection?
1 inch inferior to the medial malleolus.
142
What is the patient position for a lateral calcaneus view?
Same as for a lateral foot — lateral side down.
143
Lateral calcaneus criteria
Calcaneus and talus visualized
No rotation
144
AP ankle CR
Midway between malleoli
145
Should dorsiflexion be forced during the AP ankle view?
No — do not force dorsiflexion.
146
Are the malleoli equidistant from the IR in a true AP ankle?
No — the lateral malleolus is about 15° more posterior and ½ inch more distal than the medial malleolus.
147
AP ankle criteria
Distal 1/3 tib/fib visualized
Prox 1/2 metatarsals visualized
Medial and superior aspect of ankle joint open
148
AP mortise ankle CR and positioning
CR Midway between malleoli
Ankle medially rotated 15-20 degrees
149
AP mortise ankle criteria
Entire ankle mortise open
Distal 1/3 tib/fib
Prox 1/2 metatarsals
150
How much is the leg and foot rotated for a medial oblique ankle projection? CR?
45° medially (internally).
CR midway between malleoli
151
Oblique ankle criteria
Distal tibiofibular joint open
Distal 1/3 tib/fib
Prox 1/2 metatarsals
152
How is the beam directed for a lateral ankle projection?
CR centered to medial malleolus
153
Lat ankle criteria
Entire talus and calcaneus
Lateral malleolus superimposed over posterior half of tibia
154
What are stress views of the ankle?
A DR holds ankle in inversion and eversion stress during exposure
155
AP stress ankle criteria
Distal aspect tib/fib
Ankle joint to center of collimation
156
What IR size is typically used for an adult lower leg?
14 × 17 inches.
157
How is the IR positioned for a lower leg projection?
Diagonally, to include both the knee and ankle joints.
158
Why should the SID be increased to 44–48 inches for the lower leg?
To reduce beam divergence across the long diagonal film.
159
What must be done when increasing the SID for lower leg imaging?
Increase the technique according to the inverse square law.
160
Why should both joints be included in lower leg imaging?
Because a distal leg injury often has a second fracture near the proximal tibiofibular joint.
161
How much should the knee be flexed for a lateral lower leg view?
About 45°.
162
What may be needed to achieve a true lateral lower leg?
Support under the knee or ankle, depending on the patient’s body type.
163
AP tib/fib position/CR
True AP
CR to midpoint of leg
164
AP leg criteria
Entire tib and fib
Knee and ankle joints
Partial superimposition of tib/fib at proximal and distal ends
165
Mediolateral tib/fib position/CR
True lateral
CR to midpoint
166
Lateral leg criteria
Entire tib/fib
Knee and ankle joints
Proximal head of fibula superimposed by tibia
distal fibula superimposed by posterior half of tibia
167
What is the purpose of AP and lateral weight-bearing foot views?
To evaluate the longitudinal arch of the foot under body weight.
168
How is the AP weight-bearing foot projection performed?
Patient stands on the cassette with weight evenly distributed on both feet. CR angled 15° toward the heel, centered between feet at the base of the metatarsals.
169
Can weight-bearing AP views be done on DR cassettes?
No — traditional film or CR cassettes are used.
170
How is the lateral weight-bearing foot performed?
Each foot imaged separately. Foot elevated on a block with the IR vertical beneath it. CR directed lateromedially to the base of the metatarsals.
171
AP Weight-bearing feet criteria
Bilat feet visualized
Phalanges and MT not rotated
172
Lat weight-bearing feet criteria
Entire foot demonstrated
Plantar surfaces of MTs superimposed
173
Routine for toes
AP
Oblique
Lateral
174
Routine for feet
AP
Medial oblique
Lateral
175
Routine for calcaneus
Plantodorsal axial
Lateral
176
Routine for ankle
AP
Medial oblique (usually Mortisse)
Lateral
177
Routine for tib/fib
AP
Lateral
178
What is the tibia?
The larger, weight-bearing bone of the lower leg.
179
What are the main parts of the tibia?
A body (shaft) and two extremities (proximal and distal).
180
What are the large processes on the proximal tibia called?
The medial and lateral condyles.
181
What is the intercondylar eminence?
Two small prominences between the condyles of the tibia.
182
What are the small prominences on the intercondylar eminence called?
The medial and lateral intercondylar tubercles.
183
What is the tibial plateau?
The smooth, concave articular surface on top of the tibial condyles that articulates with the femur.
184
How much does the tibial plateau slope posteriorly?
10° to 20° in relation to the long axis of the tibia.
185
Why is the tibial plateau slope important?
To demonstrate an open joint space on an AP knee radiograph.
186
What is the tibial tuberosity?
A rough prominence on the anterior proximal tibia where the patellar tendon attaches.
187
What is the shaft (body) of the tibia?
The long, central portion between the two extremities.
188
How does the fibula compare to the tibia in size and position?
It is smaller and located lateral and posterior to the tibia.
189
What does the fibula articulate with?
The tibia proximally and distally, and the talus distally.
190
What is the proximal expanded portion of the fibula called?
The fibular head.
191
What does the fibular head articulate with?
The posteroinferior surface of the lateral condyle of the tibia.
192
What is the pointed process above the fibular head called?
The apex of the fibula.
193
What is the tapered region below the head called?
The neck of the fibula.
194
What is the long slender portion of the fibula called?
The body.
195
What is the femur?
The thigh bone; the longest and strongest bone in the body.
196
What is the shaft of the femur called?
The body — the long, slender middle portion.
197
Where is the patella located in relation to the knee joint?
It lies about ½ inch above the knee joint, anterior to the distal femur.
198
What is the patellar surface of the femur?
A smooth, shallow depression on the anterior distal femur where the patella glides.
199
What are two alternate names for the patellar surface?
The intercondylar sulcus or the trochlear groove.
200
Where is the patella positioned when the leg is fully extended?
Superior to the patellar surface of the femur.
201
Where does the patella move when the leg is flexed?
It moves downward over the patellar surface of the femur.
202
What are the palpable prominences above the condyles called?
The medial and lateral epicondyles.
203
Which condyle of the femur is more distal?
The medial condyle.
204
Why is a 5–7° cephalad angle used for lateral knee radiographs?
To superimpose the femoral condyles since the medial condyle extends lower by 5-7 degrees
205
What is the intercondylar fossa?
The deep notch between the femoral condyles on the posterior femur.
206
What is the adductor tubercle?
A bony prominence on the posterior-lateral aspect of the medial condyle.
207
Why is the adductor tubercle important radiographically?
It helps determine rotation on a lateral knee view.
208
If the adductor tubercle is in profile, what does it indicate?
The knee is under-rotated, and the fibular head is superimposed.
209
If the adductor tubercle is superimposed, what does it indicate?
The knee is over-rotated, and the fibular head is free of tibial superimposition.
210
What type of bone is the patella?
The largest sesamoid bone in the body.
211
In which muscle’s tendon is the patella embedded?
The quadriceps femoris tendon.
212
How does knee flexion affect patella position?
Flexion moves the patella downward.
213
What is the shape and size of the patella?
A flat, triangular bone about 2 inches in diameter.
214
What is the shape of the anterior patellar surface?
Convex and rough.
215
What is the shape of the posterior patellar surface?
Smooth and oval-shaped.
216
What bone does the patella articulate with?
The femur.
217
What is the inferior tip of the patella called?
The apex.
218
What is the superior border of the patella called?
The base.
219
What two articulations make up the knee joint?
The femorotibial joint and the patellofemoral joint.
220
What type of joint is the femorotibial joint?
Bicondylar joint — allows flexion, extension, slight gliding and rotation.
221
What type of joint is the patellofemoral joint?
A sellar (saddle) joint.
222
What is the largest joint space in the body?
The total knee joint.
223
What type of joint classification does the entire knee joint have?
Synovial joint.
224
What encloses the knee joint?
An articular capsule (bursa).
225
What is the suprapatellar bursa?
The superior extension of the joint capsule beneath the patella.
226
What is the infrapatellar bursa?
The distal extension of the joint capsule, associated with the visible infrapatellar fat pad.
227
What does the LCL stand for and what is its function?
Lateral (fibular) collateral ligament — prevents excessive adduction/abduction.
228
What does the MCL stand for and what is its function?
Medial (tibial) collateral ligament — also prevents excessive adduction/abduction.
229
What does the ACL stand for and what is its function?
Anterior cruciate ligament — prevents anterior/posterior displacement of the tibia.
230
What does the PCL stand for and what is its function?
Posterior cruciate ligament — also prevents anterior/posterior displacement.
231
What are the menisci made of?
Fibrocartilage.
232
Where are the menisci located?
Between the femoral condyles and the tibial plateau.
233
What are the two menisci called?
The medial and lateral menisci.
234
What is the main function of the menisci?
To act as shock absorbers.
235
What other function do the menisci serve?
They help produce and circulate synovial fluid to lubricate the joint.
236
What is a transverse fracture of the patella?
A fracture across the patella — must be ruled out before flexing the knee.
237
Do patellas require higher or lower technique?
Lighter/lower technique so you do not burn it out
238
What does a spiral fracture of the femur often indicate in children?
Possible child abuse in infants or toddlers.
239
When should a grid be used for knee imaging?
When the part measures more than 10 cm.
240
Where is the knee joint located in relation to the patella apex?
Approximately ½ inch below the apex.
241
Where should the central ray enter for standard knee projections?
½ inch below the apex of the patella.
242
On an AP or oblique knee, how should the CR be aligned?
Parallel to the tibial plateau.
243
How is the CR angle determined for the AP knee?
Based on the patient’s measurement at the level of the ASIS.
244
How to remember knee angles?
"Fat head skinny butt"
If large butt, cephalic angle
If skinny butt, caudal angle
245
What is the angle for an AP knee with measurements <19 cm?
3–5° caudad/posteriorly
246
What is the angle for an AP knee with measurements 19-24 cm?
perpendicular.
247
What is the angle for an AP knee with measurements 24+ cm?
3–5° cephalad/cephalic
248
AP knee CR and position
1/2" distal to apex of patella
True AP
249
AP knee criteria
Femorotibial joint space open
Knee joint centered to collimation field
Articular facets profiled
250
Medial oblique knee CR and position
CR 1/2" distal to apex of patella
45 degree rotation of knee inwards
251
What does the 45° medial oblique knee best demonstrate?
The head and neck of the fibula without tibial superimposition.
Proximal tibiofibular joint open
252
Lateral oblique knee CR and position
CR 1/2" distal to apex of patella
45 degree rotation of knee outwards
253
What does the 45° lateral oblique knee best demonstrate?
The medial condyles of the femur and tibia.
Fibula superimposed over midtibia
254
What is the CR angle for a lateral knee projection?
5–7° cephalad.
255
Where does the CR enter for a mediolateral knee?
1 inch distal to the medial epicondyle of the femur.
256
What may be needed to achieve a true lateral knee?
Support under the knee or ankle depending on body type.
257
Why is there an angle for a mediolateral knee?
Due to the medial condyle going lower
258
Lateral knee criteria
Femoral condyles superimposed
Patella in profile (no rotation)
Patellofemoral joint space open
259
What is the purpose of tunnel views of the knee?
To demonstrate the intercondylar fossa and articular surfaces of the femoral condyles.
260
What general patient positioning is required for tunnel views?
The knee must be flexed, with the CR directed parallel or perpendicular to the lower leg depending on the method.
261
What is the patient position for the Camp-Coventry method?
The patient is prone.
262
How much is the knee flexed in the Camp-Coventry method?
40°.
263
Where is the IR placed for the Camp-Coventry method?
Under the knee.
264
What is the central ray direction for the Camp-Coventry method?
Perpendicular to the lower leg (40° caudad from the femur).
265
Where does the central ray enter in the Camp-Coventry method?
At the midpopliteal crease.
266
What exposure factors are commonly used for the Camp-Coventry method?
70 kVp tabletop at 2 mAs.
267
What anatomy is demonstrated in the Camp-Coventry projection/criteria?
The intercondylar fossa in profile and the articular facets/intercondylar eminence are well visualized
268
What is the patient position for the Holmblad method?
The patient is on hands and knees (quadruped position).
269
How much is the knee flexed in the Holmblad method?
60–70°.
270
How is the central ray directed in the Holmblad method?
Perpendicular to both the IR and the lower leg.
271
Where should the IR be placed for the Holmblad method?
Directly under the affected knee.
272
What is demonstrated in the Holmblad projection?
The intercondylar fossa, intercondylar eminence, and articular surfaces.
273
What is the patient position for the Beclere method?
The patient is supine.
274
How much is the knee flexed in the Beclere method?
40–45°.
275
Where is the IR placed for the Beclere method?
Under the knee and as close as possible to it, often on a built-up support.
276
How is the central ray directed in the Beclere method?
Perpendicular to the lower leg.
277
Where does the CR enter in the Beclere method?
½ inch distal to the apex of the patella.
278
Why is the Beclere method not typically recommended by Bontrager?
Because of increased gonadal dose, image distortion from OID, and the steep CR angle (unless using a curved cassette).
279
What is the patient position for the PA patella?
Patient prone with the leg extended.
280
How much is the leg rotated for a true PA patella?
5° internally.
281
Where is the central ray directed for the PA patella?
Perpendicular to the midpopliteal crease.
282
What precaution should be taken if the patella is fractured?
Do not apply direct pressure to the patella. May need to do AP even though this increases OID
283
What method can you use if there's a patellar fracture and you can't shoot PA?
Merchant method. AP projection with knee flexed 40 degrees and the CR angled 30 degrees from horizontal. You use a "merchant board" to hold IR
284
Criteria for tangential patella/merchant method
Intercondylar sulcus and patella visualized
Patellofemoral joint spaces open
285
How much is the knee flexed for a lateral patella projection?
Only 5–10°.
286
Why is knee flexion limited for a lateral patella?
To avoid separating fracture fragments if a patellar fracture is present.
287
How should the femoral epicondyles appear on a true lateral patella?
Superimposed.
288
Where is the central ray directed for a lateral patella?
Perpendicular to the mid-patellofemoral joint.
289
What alternative can be used for patients who cannot flex the knee?
A cross-table lateral projection.
290
What is the purpose of tangential patellar projections?
To demonstrate the patellofemoral articulation and assess subluxation or patellar fractures.
291
Which view is generally referred to as "sunrise view" of patella?
Inferosuperior
292
What is the patient position for the inferosuperior method?
Supine with knees flexed 45°.
293
What is used to support the knees during the inferosuperior view?
A sponge under the knees.
294
How is the central ray directed in the inferosuperior method?
10–15° from the lower leg toward the patellofemoral joint (tangentially).
295
Where is the image receptor positioned?
Edge of an 8×10 inch IR placed at the mid-thigh, perpendicular to the CR.
296
What anatomy is best seen in the inferosuperior method?
The patella in profile and the patellofemoral joint space.
297
What is the patient position for the Hughston method?
Patient prone.
298
How much is the knee flexed in the Hughston method?
40-45°.
299
How is the central ray directed for the Hughston projection?
Tangentially, angled inferosuperiorly to the patellofemoral joint 15-20 degrees
300
What can be used to support the knee during this view?
Gauze, sheet, or tape — or resting the foot on a support.
301
What must be ruled out before performing the Settegast method?
A fracture of the patella.
302
What is the patient position for the Settegast projection?
Patient prone with the knee flexed 90°.
303
How is the central ray directed for the Settegast method?
15–20° from the lower leg, entering the patellofemoral joint tangentially.
304
What anatomy is visualized in the Settegast projection?
The patella in profile and the patellofemoral articulation.
305
What is the superoinferior sitting tangential method?
PT seated
Knees flexed slightly
IR placed on footstool to reduce OID
Min SID 48-50"
306
How many total radiographs are typically required to image the femur?
Four — AP proximal, AP distal, lateral proximal, and lateral distal.
307
What kVp and mAs are used for AP femur images?
Proximal: 80 kVp @ 8 mAs; Distal: 80 kVp @ 4 mAs.
308
How should the leg be positioned for the AP proximal femur?
Leg internally rotated 15–20°.
309
Why is the leg rotated internally for AP proximal femur?
To place the femoral neck in true AP position/parallel to the IR
310
Where should the IR be placed for the proximal femur?
In the bucky, centered to include the hip joint.
311
How should the patient be positioned for an AP distal femur?
Supine with the leg rotated 5° medially.
312
What size IR is used for the distal femur?
14 × 17 inches, lengthwise.
313
How should the IR be positioned in relation to the knee joint?
The bottom of the IR should extend 2 inches below the knee joint.
314
Where does the CR enter for the AP distal femur?
To the midpoint of the IR.
315
What is the patient position for the lateral distal femur?
Lateral recumbent.
316
How much should the knee be flexed for the lateral femur?
45°.
317
How are the femoral epicondyles positioned for the lateral femur?
Superimposed.
318
How should the IR be positioned for the distal femur?
Bottom of cassette 2 inches below the knee joint.
319
Where does the CR enter for the lateral femur?
At the midpoint of the IR.
320
How is the proximal femur (hip joint) imaged?
On a separate IR using a lateral hip projection.
321
What is the purpose of weight-bearing knee radiographs?
To evaluate joint space narrowing and degeneration in cases of DJD (degenerative joint disease).
322
How is the patient positioned for weight-bearing knees?
Standing erect with equal weight on both feet.
323
What projection is used for weight-bearing knees?
Bilateral AP projection.
324
How is the central ray directed for weight-bearing knees?
Perpendicular to the IR (or angled 5–10° caudad for thin patients).
325
Where does the CR enter for weight-bearing knees?
Midway between the knees, ½ inch below the patellar apices.
326
Weight-bearing knee criteria
Knee joints centered to collimation field
No rotation of knees
Joint spaces open
327
What is the PA axial weight-bearing projection (Rosenberg)?
Standing weight-bearing knees with the CR directed to the popliteal crease. PT bends knees 45 degrees. Beam is 10 degrees caudad
328
What additional view may be required in some departments?
A lateral standing (weight-bearing) view.
329
Knee routine?
AP
Medial & Lateral obliques
Lateral
330
Femur routine?
AP proximal and distal
Lateral proximal and distal
331
Patella routine?
PA
Lateral
Tangential-sunrise
Settegast, Hughston, Merchant
332
Intercondylar fossa (tunnel) routine?
Camp coventry
Beclere
Homblad
333
What are all the joints of the lower limb classified as and what's their mobility? (*with ONE exception)
Synovial class
Diarthrodial (freely movable)
334
What lower-limb joint is the exception and NOT synovial? What is it classified as?
Distal tibiofibular
Fibrous/amphiarthrodial (slightly movable)
335
What movement type is this joint: Interphalangeal (IP)
Hinge
336
What movement type is this joint: Metatarsophalangeal (MTP)
Modified ellipsoidal or condyloid
337
What movement type is this joint: Intertarsal
Plane
338
What movement type is this joint: Ankle
Entire ankle complex with both talocrural and subtalar joint: Sellar or saddle
Talocrural joint: just hinge/ginglymus
339
What movement type is this joint: Femorotibial
Bi-condylar
340
What movement type is this joint: Patellofemoral
Sellar or saddle
341
What movement type is this joint: Proximal tibiofibular
Plane
342
SID for lower limb?
40"
343
kVp for lower limb?
Low to medium (50-70 film-screen)...75 for our chart
344
Focal spot for lower limb?
Small focal spot and adequate mAs
345
Grids or no grids for lower limb?
Grids for anatomy >10 cm
346
What is the femur?
The longest and strongest bone in the body.
347
What part of the femur articulates with the acetabulum?
The head of the femur.
348
What is the fovea capitis?
A depression at the center of the femoral head where the ligament capitis femoris attaches.
349
What is the femoral neck?
The constricted area beneath the head that connects it to the body at the trochanteric region.
350
What is the greater trochanter?
A large, palpable prominence located superior and lateral to the femoral shaft.
351
What is the lesser trochanter?
A small, blunt projection that extends medially and posteriorly from the junction of the neck and body.
352
What is the intertrochanteric crest?
A thick ridge of bone located posteriorly between the greater and lesser trochanters.
353
What are the two most common fracture sites of the femur?
The femoral neck and the intertrochanteric crest.
354
How are the head and neck of the femur positioned relative to the body of the femur?
They are angled anteriorly 15–20°.
355
Why is the leg internally rotated 15–20° for a true AP hip or femur?
To place the femoral neck parallel to the IR.
356
What is the body (shaft) of the femur?
The long, slender portion between the hip and knee joints.
357
What is the patellar surface of the femur?
A smooth, shallow depression on the anterior distal femur where the patella articulates.
358
Where is the patella located in relation to the knee joint?
About ½ inch above the knee joint.
359
What are the medial and lateral epicondyles?
Palpable prominences on the outermost distal femur above the condyles.
360
What is the intercondylar fossa?
The deep notch between the medial and lateral femoral condyles on the posterior surface.
361
What forms the pelvic girdle?
Two hip bones, the sacrum, and the coccyx.
362
What are the other names for the hip bones?
Ossa coxae or innominate bones.
363
What are the three parts of each hip bone?
The ilium, ischium, and pubis.
364
Where do the three parts of the hip bone fuse?
At the acetabulum.
365
When do the ilium, ischium, and pubis fuse into one bone?
In the mid-teen years.
366
Where is the ilium located?
The superior portion of the hip bone.
367
What are the two main parts of the ilium?
The body and the ala (wing).
368
What part of the acetabulum is formed by the ilium?
The upper two-fifths.
369
What is the iliac crest?
The curved superior ridge of the ilium, extending from the ASIS to the PSIS.
370
What does ASIS stand for?
Anterior Superior Iliac Spine.
371
What does PSIS stand for?
Posterior Superior Iliac Spine.
372
Where is the anterior inferior iliac spine (AIIS) located?
Just below the ASIS.
373
Where is the posterior inferior iliac spine (PIIS) located?
Just below the PSIS.
374
Where is the ischium located in relation to the acetabulum?
Inferior and posterior to the acetabulum.
375
What portion of the acetabulum is formed by the ischium?
The posterior two-fifths.
376
What is the ischial tuberosity?
A roughened area that bears body weight when sitting.
377
Where is the ischial spine located?
Posterior to the acetabulum.
378
What is the greater sciatic notch?
The deep notch above the ischial spine.
379
What is the lesser sciatic notch?
The smaller notch below the ischial spine.
380
Where is the body of the pubis located?
Anterior and inferior to the acetabulum, forming the anterior one-fifth of it.
381
What is the superior ramus of the pubis?
The upper extension of the pubic body that projects medially and anteriorly.
382
What structure is formed where the two superior rami meet?
The symphysis pubis.
383
What type of joint is the symphysis pubis?
An amphiarthrodial cartilaginous joint allowing slight movement.
384
What structure defines the lower margin of the abdomen?
The symphysis pubis.
385
What are the inferior rami of the pubis?
Extensions that project inferiorly and posteriorly to join the ischium.
386
What is the obturator foramen?
The largest foramen in the body, formed by the pubis and ischium.
387
What are the two most important landmarks for pelvic positioning?
The iliac crest and the ASIS.
388
How is the ASIS used during positioning?
To assess for pelvic rotation.
389
At what level is the greater trochanter in relation to the symphysis pubis?
At the same level as the superior border of the symphysis pubis.
390
How far below the symphysis pubis are the ischial tuberosities located?
1½ to 2 inches below.
391
What defines the pelvic brim?
A line from the upper symphysis pubis to the upper sacral promontory.
392
What does the pelvic brim separate?
The greater (false) pelvis from the lesser (true) pelvis.
393
What forms the boundaries of the greater (false) pelvis?
The iliac wings (laterally/posteriorly) and the lower abdominal wall (anteriorly).
394
What organs lie within the false pelvis?
Lower abdominal organs and, in pregnancy, the uterus.
395
What defines the true pelvis?
The cavity below the pelvic brim that is completely surrounded by bone.
396
Why is the true pelvis clinically significant?
Its shape and size determine the birth canal dimensions.
397
What are the three parts of the true pelvis?
Inlet (superior aperture), outlet (inferior aperture), and cavity.
398
What defines the pelvic inlet?
The brim of the pelvis.
399
What defines the pelvic outlet?
The line between the two ischial tuberosities and the tip of the coccyx.
400
What is pelvimetry or cephalopelvimetry?
A radiographic study (historically used) to measure the maternal pelvis and fetal head.
401
Which pelvis is narrower and deeper?
The male pelvis.
402
Which pelvis is broader and shallower?
The female pelvis.
403
What is the shape of the male pelvic inlet?
Oval or heart-shaped.
404
What is the shape of the female pelvic inlet?
Round.
405
What is the pubic arch angle in males?
Acute — less than 90°.
406
What is the pubic arch angle in females?
Obtuse — greater than 90°.
407
What type of joints are the sacroiliac (SI) joints?
Synovial amphiarthrodial (slightly movable) joints.
408
What type of joint is the symphysis pubis?
Amphiarthrodial cartilaginous joint.
409
What type of joint is the union of the acetabulum?
Cartilaginous synchondrosis (immovable in adults).
410
What type of joint is the hip joint?
Diarthrodial, synovial, spheroid (ball-and-socket).
411
What movements does the hip joint allow?
Flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, rotation, and circumduction.
412
How do you locate the femoral head using Method 1?
Draw a line between the ASIS and symphysis pubis, then drop 1½ inches inferior from the midpoint.
413
How do you locate the femoral neck using Method 1?
Draw the same line and drop 2½ inches from the midpoint.
414
How do you locate the femoral neck using Method 2?
From the ASIS, go medially 1–2 inches and inferiorly 3–4 inches.
415
Why is the leg internally rotated 15–20° for hip imaging?
To obtain a true AP projection with the femoral neck parallel to the IR.
416
How can you tell if the femur is in a true AP position?
The lesser trochanter should not be visible or only slightly visible.
417
What indicates an unrotated leg (or possible fracture)?
The lesser trochanter is clearly visible.
418
What physical sign may indicate a femoral neck fracture?
External rotation of the affected leg and foot.
419
How should an AP pelvis be taken if a hip fracture is suspected?
Without rotating the leg internally.
420
Why must the leg not be moved in suspected hip fractures?
Movement may worsen the injury.
421
Why must pregnancy be ruled out before a pelvis or hip x-ray?
The gonadal region is directly in the beam path.
422
Should a “frog-leg” view be done on patients with hip replacements?
No, it is contraindicated.
423
What projection is done instead for post-hip replacement or trauma?
The axiolateral inferosuperior Danelius Miller method.
424
What must be demonstrated on all images if the patient has a hip prosthesis?
The entire prosthesis.
425
What type of hip fracture is most common in geriatric patients?
Femoral neck fracture.
426
How are hip fractures treated surgically?
By pinning or total hip replacement.
427
What imaging equipment is often used during hip pinning?
A C-arm for fluoroscopic guidance.
428
What is developmental hip dysplasia?
A congenital dislocation of the hip diagnosed in infancy.
429
What is metastatic carcinoma?
Cancer that spreads to bone, visible on x-ray.
430
What is osteoarthritis?
Degenerative joint disease (DJD) causing joint narrowing and sclerosis.
431
What is osteoporosis?
A condition where bones become weak and brittle, common in elderly women.
432
Routine for pelvis
AP pelvis
433
Routine for unilateral hip
AP hip
Unilateral frog leg/modified Cleaves
434
Routine for trauma hip
AP pelvis
Axiolateral inferosuperior OR Danelius-miller OR Clements-Nakayama
435
Bilateral hip routine
AP pelvis
Bilat frog-leg
436
What is the patient position for an AP pelvis?
Supine with equal weight on both hips and legs extended.
437
How are the legs positioned for an AP pelvis (non-trauma)?
Internally rotated 15–20°.
438
Why are the legs rotated for an AP pelvis?
To place the femoral necks parallel to the IR and prevent foreshortening.
439
What should be done if a hip fracture is suspected?
Do not rotate the legs.
440
Where is the central ray directed for an AP pelvis?
Perpendicular to the midpoint between the level of the ASIS and the symphysis pubis (about 2 inches inferior to ASIS).
441
What size IR is used for an AP pelvis?
14 × 17 inches crosswise.
442
What structures should be visible on an AP pelvis?
Entire pelvis, both femoral heads and necks, greater trochanters, and the ischial spines.
443
How should the obturator foramina appear on a true AP pelvis?
Symmetrical in shape and size.
444
What indicates pelvic rotation on an AP pelvis?
One obturator foramen appears wider than the other.
445
How should the lesser trochanters appear on a properly rotated AP pelvis?
Barely visible or not at all.
446
What can we use when imaging a femur?
The anode heel effect.
Place the "fatter" side on the cathode side
447
What must be included on femur imaging?
Both joints
448
What should we remember if using AEC for a femur?
The femur lies in the outer portion of the thigh. If improperly positioned and soft tissue is over the cell, image will be too light
449
What are inlet/outlet projections of the pelvis done for?
Eval pelvic ring fractures
450
What is the position for Outlet (Taylor method)?
AP supine
451
CR angle for Outlet/Taylor method men?
20-35 degrees
452
CR angle for Outlet/Taylor method women?
30-45 degrees
453
Where is the CR directed for Outlet/Taylor method
1-2" distal to the superior border of the pubic symphysis
454
What is the outlet/Taylor best for
Demonstrating pubis and ischium
455
Position for inlet?
AP supine
456
CR for inlet?
Angled 40 degrees caudad
Entering midline at ASIS
457
Inlet best demonstrates
An axial projection of pelvic ring
458
Inlet or outlet?
Outlet
459
Inlet or outlet?
Inlet
460
What projection is performed in trauma hip cases when you can't move legs?
Modified axiolateral- Clements Nakauama method
461
Position/CR for Modified axiolateral- Clements Nakauama method
Patient is supine with CR angled mediolaterally so it is perpendicular to the femoral neck
462
Purpose of Judet views?
Eval acetabular fracture or hip dislocation
463
What is done for Judet views
Posterior obliques (LPO, RPO)
One oblique with the affected side up, one oblique with the affected side down
464
Centering for Judet views
To the level of the femoral head
465
What position is this? What is the upside/downside?
LPO judet views
Upside has flattened wing and head of femur natural (patient's right)
Downside has elongated wing and lateral femur (patient's left)
466
What position is this? What is the upside/downside?
RPO judet views
Upside has flattened wing and head of femur natural (patient's left)
Downside has elongated wing and lateral femur (patient's right)
467
What are the angles of the proximal femur: neck to shaft?
~125 degrees
468
What are the angles of the proximal femur: longitudinal?
~10 degrees
469
What are the angles of the proximal femur: anterior angle?
~15-20 degrees
470
What's the difference between the pelvis and pelvic girdle?
Pelvis:
RT and LT hip bones
Sacrum
Coccyx
Pelvic girdle:
RT and LT hip bones
471
What are hip bones AKA?
Ossa coxae/innominate bones
472
What type of joint (class + mobility) is:
Sacroiliac (2)
Synovial
Amphiarthrodial (Limited movement)
473
What type of joint (class + mobility) is:
Hip (2)
Synovial
Diarthrodial (spheroidal)
474
What type of joint (class + mobility) is:
Symphysis pubis
Cartilaginous
Amphiarthrodial (limited)
475
What type of joint (class + mobility) is:
Union of acetabulum (2)
Cartilaginous
Synarthrodial (NO movement)
476
How should you rotate the leg for AP mid and distal femur? CR?
5 degrees internally
CR perpendicular to midpoint of femur
477
AP mid/distal femur criteria
Knee joint included
No rotation
478
Lateral mid/distal femur position and CR
True lateral
CR to midpoint
479
Lateral mid/distal femur criteria
Knee joint included
No rotation
480
AP proximal femur rotation and CR?
10-20 degrees internal rotation
CR to midfemur
481
AP proximal femur criteria
True AP
Hip joint included
482
Lateral mid/proximal femur criteria
Proximal femur not superimposed
True lateral
483
What's the difference between positioning an AP pelvis for trauma or nontrauma?
Non trauma views:
Rotational hip and proximal femur projection
Trauma views:
Trauma pelvis projections and NONrotational hip and proximal femur projections
484
Positioning/CR for AP pelvis
Rotate limbs internally (nontrauma) 15-20 degrees
CR midway between level of ASIS and pubic symphysis
485
AP pelvis criteria
Entire pelvis and prox femur included
No rotation of pelvis
Lesser trochanters NOT visible (thanks to correct internal rotation)
486
Positioning and CR for bilateral "frog leg"
Abduct femurs 40-45 degrees
CR 3" below ASIS
487
Bilat frog leg criteria
Pelvic girdle centered
No pelvic rotation
Lesser trochanters equal in size
Greater trochanters superimposed over femoral neck
488
Position/CR for AP Axial outlet
Patient is supine
CR 20-30 degrees cephalad for males
CR 30-45 degrees cephalad for females
CR centered 1-2" distal to pubic symphysis
489
AP axial outlet criteria
Elongated and magnified pubic and ischial bones
No pelvic rotation
Pubic and ischial bones centered
490
Position/CR AP axial inlet
Patient supine
CR 40 degrees caudad at level of ASIS
491
Ap axial inlet criteria
Ischial spines demonstrated and equal
Pelvic inlet centered
Lateral collimation evident
492
CR/position for Judet method (acetabulum)
Patient is in posterior oblique positions (RPO, LPO)
CR 2" distal and medial to the downside's ASIS
CR 2" distal to upside ASIS
493
Judet method (acetabulum) criteria
RPO downside: anterior rim and posterior ilioischial column demonstrated
LPO upside: posterior rim and anterior ilioischial column demonstrated
494
Position/CR AP unilateral hip and AP proximal femur
Patient supine
CR perpendicular to midfemoral neck
495
AP unilateral hip and proximal femur criteria
Proximal 1/3 femur included
Hip joint space and acetabulum included
Lesser trochanter not visible or barely visible
Complete prosthetic if present
496
Axiolateral hip/Inferosuperior/Danelius-Miller method position and CR
Patient supine with unaffected leg raised and out of way. Affected leg straight
CR perpendicular to midfemoral neck
497
Axiolateral hip/Inferosuperior/Danelius-Miller method criteria
Entire femoral head, neck, acetabulum visualized
No visible gridlines
498
Unilateral "frog leg"/modified Cleaves method position/CR
Abduct femur 45 degrees from vertical (for best view of femoral head and acetabulum, abduct femur 90 degrees from vertical)
CR perpendicular to midfemoral neck
499
Unilateral "frog leg"/modified Cleaves method criteria
Entire femoral head, neck, trochanters centered to IR
Femoral head and neck in profile
500
Modified axiolateral/Clements-Nakayama method position/CR
Patient supine
CR 30-40 degrees mediolateral and 15-20 degrees posteriorly from horizontal
CR centered to femoral neck
501
Modified axiolateral/Clements-Nakayama method criteria
Entire femoral head, neck, trochanters centered to IR
Femoral head and neck in profile
502
What pathology is: fusion of SI joints, causing bamboo spine. Most often in males
Ankylosing spondylitis
503
What pathology is: trauma to one side of pelvis that can result in fractures away from the primary
Pelvic ring fracture
504
What pathology is: ischemic necrosis of the head/neck of femur, usually unilateral. Causes a limp. Seen in 5-10 yo boys. Appears as flattened femoral head on image
Legg-Calve-Perthe
505
What is arthrography?
Radiography of joint(s)
506
What is pneumoarthrography
Gas or air injected into a joint (appears black)
507
What is opaque arthrography
Water soluble iodinated contrast injected into a joint (appears white)
508
What is double-contrast arthrography
Both air and iodinated contrast injected (black and white)
509
What structures does arthrography demonstrate?
The soft tissue structures of the joint:
Menisci, ligaments, articular cartilage, bursae
510
What are common joints viewed in arthrography?
Knee, shoulder, hip, wrist, TMJs
511
What is required for arthrography room setup?
Sterile tray (including supplies: betadine, anesthetic, needle, tubing, syringe, sterile drape)
Set for fluoro
Positioning aids (sponges, etc.)
512
What's the common iodinated contrast kVp range for arthrography?
70-80 kVp
513
What's a simplified summary of arthrography procedures
The joint is going to be localized under fluoro by a radiologist
A needle will sterily inject contrast into the joint space then be removed
The part is manipulated to disperse contrast
Fluoro spot images are taken
Special views may be taken post-fluoro
514
What does the knee vertical ray method arthrography require
Use of stress device
Multiple exposures made on one cassette (seems like a CR answer...)
515
What does the knee horizontal ray method arthrography require
Double contrast study
Horizontal beam better demonstrates contrast in joint space thanks to air/fluid levels
516
What is wrist arthrography done for
Trauma, persistent pain, limited ROM
517
Common wrist arthrography views
PA, lateral, medial and lateral obliques
518
When are hip arthrograms performed for kids usually
To eval congenital hip dislocation before and after treatment
519
When are hip arthrograms performed for adults usually
Detect loose prosthesis or confirm infections
520
What sort of images are helpful in arthrogram cases, particularly for prosthetics?
Subtraction images (ex. removing bone)
521
When is shoulder arthrography done
Eval RTC tears, persistent pain/weakness, frozen shoulder
522
Common shoulder arthrography images/contrast
Single or double contrast
Internal, external, Grashey, axillary and/or tangential views
