Unit 5 - Learning, knowledge and memory

Question 1

Learning:

Answer 1

a relatively permanent change in behaviour which comes with experience.

We can learn by observing events that affect others.

We also learn when we are not trying to do so. →This casual acquisition of knowledge is known as INCIDENTAL LEARNING.

Question 2

Learning theories: Psychologists explain several theories to explain the learning process.

Answer 2

1. Behavioral theory: those that focus on simple stimulus-response connections.
2. Cognitive theory: perspectives that regard consumers as solvers of complex problems who learn abstract rules & concepts when they observe what others say & do.

Marketers need to understand these theories because basic concepts of learning are fundamental in consumer’s purchase decisions.

Question 3

on behavioral learning theory

Answer 3

assume that learning takes place as the result of responses to external events.

Question 4

types of behavioral learning theories

Answer 4

1. Classical conditioning

2. Instrumental conditioning / Operant conditioning

Question 5

on Classical conditioning

Answer 5

• Occurs when a stimulus that elicits a response is paired with another stimulus that initially does not elicit a response on its own (neutral).
• Over time, this second stimulus causes a similar response because it is associated with the first stimulus.

Example: training dogs to do something (unconditional stimulus) when you ring a bell/whistle (initially neutral stimulus)

Question 6

on Classical conditioning → Extinction

Answer 6

• Extinction can occur when a product is over-exposed in the marketplace so that its original allure is lost.
• The most effective repetition strategy is a combination of spaced exposures that alternate in terms of media (TV and print media, for example).

Question 7

on Instrumental conditioning / Operant conditioning

Answer 7

1. Individuals learn to perform behaviours that produce positive outcomes and to avoid those that yield negative outcomes.
2. While responses in classical conditioning are involuntary and fairly simple, those in instrumental conditioning are made deliberately to obtain a goal and may be more complex.
3. The desired behaviour may be learned over a period of time, as intermediate actions are rewarded in a process called shaping.
4. Classical conditioning involves the close pairing of two stimuli.
5. Instrumental learning occurs as a result of a reward received following the desired behaviour.

example: training dogs

Question 8

Instrumental conditioning occurs in 3 ways

Answer 8

1. When the environment provides positive reinforcement in the form of a reward. The response is strengthened and appropriate behaviour is learned.
2. Negative reinforcement also strengthens responses so that appropriate behaviour is learned.
3. Punishment occurs when a response is followed by unpleasant events.

Question 9

on cognitive learning theory

Answer 9

1. Occurs as a result of mental processes. In contrast to behavioural theories of learning, cognitive learning theory stresses the importance of internal mental processes.
2. This perspective views people as problem-solvers who actively use information from the world around them to master their environment.
3. Supporters of this viewpoint also stress the role of creativity and insight during the learning process.

Question 10

on observational learning

Answer 10

This process of imitating the behaviour of others is called modelling.

Question 11

In order observational learning to occur, four conditions must be met:

Answer 11

1. The consumer’s attention must be directed to the appropriate model who, for reasons of attractiveness, competence, status or similarity, it is desirable to emulate.
2. The consumer must remember what is said or done by the model.
3. The consumer must convert this information into actions.
4. The consumer must be motivated to perform these actions.

Question 12

The transfer of meaning from an unconditioned stimulus to a conditioned stimulus explains

Answer 12

why ‘made-up’ brand names like Marlboro, Coca-Cola or IBM an exert such powerful effects on consumers.

Question 13

positive brand equity.

Answer 13

Brand equity: a brand has strong positive associations in a consumer’s memory and commands a lot of loyalty as a result. A product with brand equity holds a tremendous advantage in the marketplace.

Question 14

Repetition is needed to ensure that

Answer 14

the consumer is exposed to and processes the ad at least three times.

Marketers attempting to condition an association must ensure the consumers they have targeted will be exposed to the stimulus a sufficient number of times.

example: Oreo→twist, lick, dunk

Question 15

Stimulus generalisation

Answer 15

refers to the tendency of stimuli similar to a consumer to evoke similar conditioned responses.

example: guns and fireworks

Question 16

Strategies based on stimulus generalisation include the following:

Answer 16

1. Family branding,
   in which a variety of products capitalise on the reputation of a company name.
2. Product line extensions,
   in which related products are added to an established brand.
3. Licensing,
   in which well-known names are ‘rented’ by others. This strategy is increasing in popularity as marketers try to link their products and services with well- established figures.
4. Product tie-ins,
   marketers are increasingly capitalising on the public’s enthusiasm for films and popular TV programmes by developing numerous product tie-ins.
5. Lookalike packaging,
   which is distinctive packaging designs create strong associations with a particular brand. This linkage is often exploited by makers of generic or private-label brands who wish to communicate a quality image by putting their products in very similar packages.

Question 17

A brand name used so widely that is no longer distinctive

Answer 17

becomes part of the public domain and can be used by competitors: Aspirin, Cellophane, Kleenex

Question 18

How marketers take advantage of instrumental conditioning principles.

Answer 18

• Frequency Marketing: reinforces regular purchasers by giving them prizes with values that increase along with the amount purchased. (airlines & frequent flier programs)
• Gamification: Is simply about providing rewards to customers to encourage them to buy even more.

Question 19

Brand names that are linked to

Answer 19

physical characteristics of a product category (Nescafé) or that are easy to visualise (Fairy) tend to be more easily retained in memory than more abstract brand names.

Question 20

Types of memory

Answer 20

1. Sensory meaning: A consumer may process a stimulus simply in terms of sensory meaning, such as its colour or shape. We may experience a sense of familiarity on seeing an ad of a snack food we recently tasted.
2. Semantic meaning: symbolic associations, such the idea of rich people drinking champagne.
3. Episodic memories: events that are personally relevant. As a result, a person’s motivation to retain these memories will be strong.

Question 21

Memory systems

Answer 21

1. Sensory memory: permits storage of the information we receive from our senses.
2. Short-term memory (STM): Stores information for a limited period of time, and its capacity is limited.
3. Long-term memory (LTM): Allows us to retain information for a long period of time. In order for information to enter into long-term memory from short—term memory, elaborative rehearsal is required.

Question 22

Activation models of memory:

Answer 22

the more effort it takes to process information (so-called deep processing), the more likely it is that information will be placed in long-term memory.

Question 23

Knowledge structures:

Answer 23

complex spiders’ webs filled with pieces of data. This information is placed into nodes, which are connected by associative links within these structures.

Question 24

The memory trace for an ad could be stored in one or more of the following ways:

Answer 24

1. Brand-specific: in terms of claims made for the brand.
2. Ad-specific: in terms of the medium or content of the ad itself.
3. Brand identification: in terms of the brand name.
4. Product category: in terms of how the product works, where it should be used, or experiences with the product.
5. Evaluative reactions: in terms of whether ‘that looks like fun’.

Question 25

State-dependent retrieval:

Answer 25

in a process termed state-dependent retrieval, people are better able to access information if their internal state is the same at the time of recall as it was when the information was learned.

Question 26

Familiarity and recall:

Answer 26

As a general rule, prior familiarity with an item enhances its recall.

Question 27

Salience

Answer 27

The salience of a brand refers to its prominence or level of activation in memory.

Question 28

Factors influencing forgetting

Answer 28

- Memories fade due to the simple passage of time. In a process of decay, the structural changes in the brain produced by learning simply go away. - Forgetting also occurs due to interference: as additional information is learned, it displaces the earlier information.

Question 29

Nostalgia:

Answer 29

describes a bittersweet emotion where we view the past with both sadness and longing.