What are the three regions of the brain?
Hindbrain, midbrain, forebrain
The hindbrain and midbrain constitute the brainstem.
What constitutes the brainstem?
Hindbrain and midbrain
The brainstem is the oldest part of the brain in terms of evolution.
What are common symptoms of brainstem damage?
- Respiratory problems
- Difficulty swallowing
- Slurred speech
- Problems with balance and coordination
- Nausea
- Sleep disturbances
- Confusion
- Loss of consciousness
The symptoms depend on the location and extent of the damage.
What structures are included in the hindbrain?
- Medulla
- Pons
- Cerebellum
The hindbrain is located just above the spinal cord.
What is the primary function of the medulla?
Regulates involuntary functions essential for survival
Functions include respiration, heart rate, and blood pressure.
What role does the pons serve in the brain?
Connects the two halves of the cerebellum and coordinates movements
It also relays messages between the cerebellum and cerebral cortex.
What is ataxia and what causes it?
Characterized by lack of muscle control, impaired balance and coordination
Caused by damage to the cerebellum.
What are the main functions of the reticular formation?
- Regulation of muscle tone
- Coordination of eye movements
- Control of pain
It contains the reticular activating system (RAS) which mediates consciousness and arousal.
What is the substantia nigra involved in?
Reward-seeking, drug addiction, and motor control
Degeneration in this area is linked to Parkinson’s disease.
What structures are included in the subcortical forebrain?
- Hypothalamus
- Thalamus
- Basal ganglia
- Amygdala
- Hippocampus
These structures play essential roles in various functions including emotion and memory.
What is the primary role of the hypothalamus?
Maintains the body’s homeostasis and regulates critical functions
Functions include temperature regulation, thirst, hunger, and stress response.
What hormones does the hypothalamus produce?
- Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)
- Oxytocin
- Vasopressin
GnRH stimulates the anterior pituitary, while oxytocin and vasopressin are sent to the posterior pituitary.
True or False: The thalamus is known as a relay station.
True
It transmits sensory information to the cortex for all senses except smell.
What syndrome is caused by thiamine deficiency related to chronic alcoholism?
Korsakoff syndrome
Symptoms include anterograde amnesia, retrograde amnesia, and confabulation.
What structures make up the basal ganglia?
- Caudate nucleus
- Putamen
- Nucleus accumbens
- Globus pallidus
The caudate nucleus, putamen, and nucleus accumbens are collectively referred to as the striatum.
What is the limbic system responsible for?
Emotion, motivation, and memory
Primary structures include the amygdala, cingulate cortex, and hippocampus.
What is the function of the amygdala?
- Processing and regulating emotions
- Recognizing emotions in facial expressions
- Attaching emotions to memories
It is also involved in the formation of flashbulb memories.
What role does the cingulate cortex play?
Involved in motivation, memory, and emotional reactions to pain
Damage to it affects emotional distress related to pain.
What is the function of the hippocampus?
Transfer of declarative memories from short-term to long-term memory
It is also important for spatial memory.
What impact does stress have on the hippocampus?
Increases cortisol levels which impair memory retrieval
Linked to conditions like PTSD and depression.
What is the cerebral cortex?
The outer layer of the brain divided into right and left hemispheres, each containing four lobes: frontal, temporal, parietal, and occipital.
What are the four lobes of the cerebral cortex?
- Frontal lobe
- Temporal lobe
- Parietal lobe
- Occipital lobe
What is Broca’s area and its function?
A major language area located in the dominant frontal lobe responsible for language production.
What condition results from damage to Broca’s area?
Broca’s aphasia, also known as expressive aphasia and nonfluent aphasia.
