List the five main types of pathogens and provide one example of each.
- Bacteria: Example - Streptococcus
- Viruses: Example - Influenza
- Fungi: Example - Candida
- Protozoa: Example - Plasmodium
- Helminths: Example - Tapeworm
Pathogens are microorganisms that can cause disease.
Describe the structure of bacteria and explain how they infect the human body.
Bacteria are single-celled organisms with a cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm, and genetic material. They infect the human body by attaching to host cells, multiplying, and producing toxins.
Bacteria can enter the body through various routes, including wounds and mucous membranes.
Explain the difference between infectious and non-infectious diseases, providing one example of each.
- Infectious diseases: Caused by pathogens (Example - Tuberculosis)
- Non-infectious diseases: Not caused by pathogens (Example - Diabetes)
Infectious diseases can be transmitted between individuals, while non-infectious diseases are often due to genetic or environmental factors.
Identify three ways infectious diseases can be transmitted between individuals.
- Direct contact
- Airborne transmission
- Vector-borne transmission
Understanding transmission methods is crucial for preventing the spread of infectious diseases.
Outline the three lines of defence in the human immune system and give one example for each.
- First line: Physical barriers (Example - Skin)
- Second line: Innate immune response (Example - Inflammation)
- Third line: Adaptive immune response (Example - Antibodies)
Each line of defence plays a critical role in protecting the body from pathogens.
Define what an autoimmune disease is and give one example.
An autoimmune disease occurs when the immune system mistakenly attacks the body’s own cells. Example - Rheumatoid arthritis
Autoimmune diseases can affect various organs and systems in the body.
Explain how vaccines help achieve herd immunity.
Vaccines stimulate the immune system to produce antibodies, reducing the spread of disease within a population.
When a significant portion of the population is vaccinated, it protects those who are unvaccinated.
Compare the Trait, Social-Cognitive, and Psychodynamic approaches to personality.
- Trait: Focuses on identifying and measuring individual personality characteristics
- Social-Cognitive: Emphasizes the role of social influences and cognitive processes
- Psychodynamic: Highlights the influence of unconscious motives and childhood experiences
Each approach offers a different perspective on understanding personality.
List the seven APS ethical guidelines used in psychological research and explain what they mean.
- Informed consent
- Voluntary participation
- Confidentiality
- Deception
- Debriefing
- Withdrawal rights
- Protection from harm
These guidelines ensure the ethical treatment of participants in psychological research.
Explain the difference between projective and non-projective personality tests. Give one example of each.
- Projective tests: Assess personality through ambiguous stimuli (Example - Rorschach Inkblot Test)
- Non-projective tests: Use structured questionnaires (Example - MMPI)
Projective tests aim to uncover hidden emotions, while non-projective tests focus on measurable traits.
Apply the stimulus-response model (stimulus, receptor, control centre, effector, response) to describe how the body reacts when touching a hot surface.
- Stimulus: Hot surface
- Receptor: Skin sensory receptors
- Control centre: Spinal cord
- Effector: Muscles in the arm
- Response: Withdrawal of hand
This model illustrates the reflex arc in response to a painful stimulus.
Identify the three types of neurons and describe their functions.
- Sensory neurons: Transmit sensory information to the brain
- Motor neurons: Convey signals from the brain to muscles
- Interneurons: Connect sensory and motor neurons within the brain and spinal cord
Neurons play a crucial role in the nervous system’s communication.
Describe how a signal is transmitted between neurons.
A signal is transmitted via neurotransmitters released from the axon terminal of one neuron, crossing the synapse to bind with receptors on the next neuron’s dendrites.
This process is essential for communication within the nervous system.
Explain the difference between the Central Nervous System and the Peripheral Nervous System, including their key components and roles.
- Central Nervous System: Comprises the brain and spinal cord; processes information and coordinates responses
- Peripheral Nervous System: Includes all other neural elements; connects the CNS to limbs and organs
The CNS is the control center, while the PNS facilitates communication between the CNS and the body.
Describe the layers of the Earth and their main characteristics.
- Crust: Thin, solid outer layer
- Mantle: Thick, semi-solid layer beneath the crust
- Outer core: Liquid layer composed of iron and nickel
- Inner core: Solid, dense center of the Earth
Each layer has distinct properties and plays a role in geological processes.
Summarise the theory of Continental Drift and the evidence that supports it.
The theory posits that continents were once joined and have since drifted apart. Evidence includes fossil distribution, geological similarities, and the fit of continental coastlines.
Proposed by Alfred Wegener, this theory laid the groundwork for plate tectonics.
Explain how seafloor spreading occurs.
Seafloor spreading occurs at mid-ocean ridges where tectonic plates diverge, allowing magma to rise and create new oceanic crust.
This process contributes to the movement of continents.
Describe how convection currents in the mantle cause plate movement.
Convection currents in the mantle arise from heat from the Earth’s core, causing molten rock to rise and fall, which drives the movement of tectonic plates above.
This mechanism is a key factor in plate tectonics.
Compare divergent, convergent, and transform boundaries. Include examples of the landforms or natural disasters that occur at each type.
- Divergent: Plates move apart (Example - Mid-Atlantic Ridge, earthquakes)
- Convergent: Plates collide (Example - Himalayas, earthquakes, and volcanoes)
- Transform: Plates slide past each other (Example - San Andreas Fault, earthquakes)
Each boundary type is associated with specific geological features and events.
Explain how the movement of tectonic plates can result in the formation of volcanoes, mountains, and earthquakes.
Tectonic plate movement can cause volcanic eruptions at divergent boundaries, mountain formation at convergent boundaries, and earthquakes at transform boundaries.
These geological processes shape the Earth’s surface.
Define independent, dependent, and controlled variables. Provide one example of each.
- Independent variable: The factor manipulated (Example - Temperature)
- Dependent variable: The factor measured (Example - Rate of reaction)
- Controlled variable: Factors kept constant (Example - Concentration of reactants)
Understanding variables is essential for designing experiments.
Suggest two ways data collection could be made more accurate and precise.
- Use calibrated instruments
- Increase sample size
Accuracy and precision are critical for reliable scientific results.
Explain the difference between accuracy and precision in scientific experiments.
- Accuracy: Closeness to the true value
- Precision: Consistency of repeated measurements
Both concepts are important for evaluating experimental results.
Draw or describe an appropriate graph type for showing the relationship between temperature and rate of reaction.
A line graph is appropriate for showing the relationship, with temperature on the x-axis and rate of reaction on the y-axis.
Line graphs effectively illustrate trends and relationships in data.
