Glycogen
Glycogen is a stored form of glucose, primarily found in the liver and muscles. It serves as a vital energy reserve that can be quickly mobilised to meet sudden energy demands.
Chemical Control on Ventilation
Controlled by chemoreceptors sensitive to carbon dioxide (CO2), oxygen (O2), and pH levels in the blood. High CO2 levels increase ventilation; low O2 levels trigger a similar response.
Process of Breaking Down Glycogen (Glycogenolysis)
Glycogen → Glucose-1-phosphate → Glucose-6-phosphate → Energy production (ATP). Enzyme involved: Glycogen phosphorylase.
Structure of the Respiratory System
Includes nose, nasal passages, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and lungs. Lungs house alveoli for gas exchange.
Functions of Conducting Airways
Filter, warm, and humidify the air. Serve as passageways for airflow to the alveoli.
Relationship Between Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland
Hypothalamus controls the pituitary gland via releasing and inhibiting hormones. The pituitary gland releases hormones that regulate other endocrine glands.
Hormone Responsibilities
Hypothalamus: Produces ADH, oxytocin, and regulatory hormones. Pituitary: Secretes growth hormone (GH), TSH, ACTH, LH, FSH, and prolactin.
Blood Pressure (BP)
Systolic: Pressure during heartbeats. Diastolic: Pressure between beats.
Factors Affecting Ventilation Rate
CO2 and O2 levels, pH changes, body temperature, exercise, and emotions.
Blood Flow Redistribution During Exercise
Increased to muscles, heart, and skin; decreased to digestive organs.
Cardiac Output (CO)
CO = Heart Rate (HR) × Stroke Volume (SV).
Database Question
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Cardiac Drift
Gradual increase in heart rate during prolonged steady-state exercise, due to dehydration and reduced stroke volume.
Gaseous Exchange
Occurs in alveoli: O2 diffuses into blood, CO2 diffuses out.
Cardiac Output: Trained vs Untrained
Trained individuals have higher stroke volume and lower resting heart rate, leading to efficient CO.
Blood Vessels
Arteries: Carry blood away from the heart. Veins: Return blood to the heart. Capillaries: Facilitate exchange between blood and tissues.
Mechanics of Inhalation
Diaphragm contracts, rib cage expands, creating negative pressure to draw air in.
Knowledge of Insulin
Hormone produced by the pancreas; regulates blood glucose levels by facilitating cellular glucose uptake.
Feedback Loops
Negative feedback maintains homeostasis (e.g., temperature, blood sugar regulation).
Regulation of Insulin When Blood Sugar is High
Pancreas releases insulin → cells absorb glucose → blood sugar levels decrease.
