less developed countries (LDCs)
Countries at a relatively low level of economic development. Example: A strong example is Haiti, which faces chronic poverty, weak infrastructure, and low industrial capacity. Frequent natural disasters and political instability worsen its development challenges, illustrating the barriers LDCs face in integrating into the global economy.
Infrastructure
Basic structures necessary for social activity, such as transportation and telecommunications networks, and power and water supply. Example: A clear example is India building new highways and expanding internet access to support business growth. These basic structures make it easier for people to travel, communicate, and participate in the economy.
Primary products
Raw materials and agricultural products, typically unprocessed or only slightly processed. The primary sectors are distinguished from secondary sectors (industry) and tertiary sectors (services). Example: Saudi Arabia’s main export of crude oil is a primary product because it is minimally processed and sold as a raw material. Its economy depends heavily on these natural resources rather than manufactured goods.
Oligopoly
A situation in which a market or industry is dominated by a few firms. Example: The global airline industry is an example of an oligopoly because only a few major airlines dominate international travel routes. Their limited competition allows them to influence prices and standards.
Terms of trade
The relationship between a country’s export prices and its import prices. Example: A country like Chile benefits when the price of its copper exports rises while the price of its imported goods remains low. These favorable terms of trade let Chile buy more for the same amount of exports.
Import-substituting industrialization (ISIs)
A set of policies, pursued by most developing countries from the 1930s through the 1980s, to reduce imports and encourage domestic manufacturing, often through trade barriers, subsidies to manufacturing, and state ownership of basic industries. Example: In the 1970s, Brazil used ISI policies by placing high tariffs on imported cars to force consumers to buy locally produced vehicles. This protected domestic industries and tried to promote national manufacturing.
Export-oriented industrialization (EOI)
A set of policies, originally pursued in the mid-1960s by several East Asian countries, to spur manufacturing for export, often through subsidies and incentives for export production. Example: South Korea followed EOI by giving subsidies to electronics companies like Samsung to produce goods for global markets. This strategy helped the country grow rapidly by focusing on exports.
Group of 77
A coalition of developing countries in the UN, formed in 1964 with 77 members, that seeks changes to the international economic order to favor the developing world. It has grown to over 130 members but retains the original name. Example: The Group of 77 showed its influence when developing countries pushed for fairer trade rules at the United Nations. They worked together to demand changes that benefit poorer nations.
Commodity cartels
Associations of producers of commodities (raw materials and agricultural products) that restrict world supply of their products and thereby cause the price of their goods to rise. Example: OPEC is the most famous commodity cartel because oil-producing countries coordinate limits on oil supply to raise global prices. Their decisions can significantly impact energy markets worldwide.
International law
A body of rules that binds states and other agents in world politics and is considered to have the status of law. Example: The Geneva Conventions are a key example of international law because they set binding rules for how countries must treat prisoners of war. States accept these rules as legitimate and legally enforceable.
International humanitarian law
A body of rules that seeks to limit the effects of armed conflict, protect noncombatants, and restrict means and methods of warfare for humanitarian reasons. Example: An example is the Geneva Conventions, which require armies to protect civilians during wartime. These rules forbid targeting hospitals or aid workers even in armed conflict.
Customary international law
International law that usually develops slowly, over time, as states come to recognize practices as appropriate and correct. Example: A strong example is the global norm against piracy, which became law because countries consistently punished pirates over centuries. States follow this rule even without a written treaty.
Obligation
The degree to which states are legally bound by an international rule. High-obligation rules must be performed in good faith and, if breached, require reparations to the injured party. Example: The Paris Agreement shows different levels of obligation because countries must report their climate progress, but are not legally punished if they miss their emissions targets. Some rules are binding, while others are more flexible.
Precision
The degree to which international legal obligations are fully specified. More precise rules narrow the scope for reasonable interpretation. Example: Trade agreements like the WTO rules are highly precise because they clearly define what counts as an illegal subsidy. This level of detail limits how many countries can interpret the rules differently.
Delegation
The degree to which third parties, such as courts, arbitrators, or mediators, are given authority to implement, interpret, and apply international legal rules; to resolve disputes over the rules; and to make additional rules. Example: A major example is the World Trade Organization’s dispute settlement body, which has the authority to judge trade disputes between countries. Its rulings can force states to change their policies.
Norms
Standards of behavior for actors with a given identity; norms define what actions are “right” or appropriate under particular circumstances. Example: The global norm against using chemical weapons is strong because states broadly agree that such weapons are unacceptable. Even countries that have them often deny using them to avoid violating the norm.
Norm entrepreneurs
Individuals or groups that seek to advance principled standards of behavior for states and other actors. Example: A clear example is Malala Yousafzai, who advocates globally for girls’ education and helped push governments to adopt stronger protections. Her activism helped shape what the world sees as appropriate treatment of girls.
Transnational advocacy network (TAN)
A set of individuals and nongovernmental organizations acting in pursuit of a normative objective. Example: Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International form a TAN when they coordinate campaigns to pressure countries to release political prisoners. Their cross-border cooperation makes violations harder to hide.
norms life cycle
A three-stage model of how norms diffuse within a population and achieve a taken-for-granted status. Example: The campaign against landmines follows this cycle: activists first promoted a ban, then many states adopted treaties, and now the ban is widely accepted as normal. Most countries will not use landmines today because the norm is fully internalized.
Private Authority Boomerang Model ( it’s put as one word in the study guide?)
Private Authority: An expression of legitimate rulemaking by nonstate actors in international affairs, including the establishment of norms governing the behavior of private global actors such as multinational corporations and international NGOs. Example: A good example is the Forest Stewardship Council, a non-government body that sets global standards for sustainable forestry. Companies follow their rules voluntarily because consumers trust their certification. Boomerang Model: A process through which NGOs in one state are able to activate transnational linkages to bring pressure from other states on their own governments. Example: A clear example is South African anti-apartheid activists who connected with international NGOs to pressure foreign governments to sanction South Africa. External pressure helped force the apartheid government to change.
human rights
The rights possessed by all individuals by virtue of being human, regardless of their status as citizens of particular states or members of a group or organization. Example: Freedom from torture is a universal human right, meaning no government is allowed to use torture under any condition. This applies equally to all people regardless of citizenship.
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR)
A declaration, adopted by the UN General Assembly in 1948, that is defined as a “common standard of achievement for all people” and forms the foundation of modern human rights law. Example: Countries used the UDHR as a foundation when creating later treaties like the ICCPR and ICESCR. It provided the first global list of basic rights all people should have.
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR)
The agreement, completed in 1966 and in force from 1976, that details the basic civil and political rights of individuals and nations. The ICCPR and ICESCR together are known as the “twin covenants.” Example: A strong example is its protection of freedom of speech, which requires governments to allow political criticism. Many democracies use this treaty to justify expanding civil liberties.
International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights (ICESCR)
The agreement, completed in 1966 and in force from 1976, that specifies the basic economic, social, and cultural rights of individuals and nations. The ICCPR and ICESCR together are known as the “twin covenants.” Example: This treaty’s right to education pushed many countries to provide free public schooling. Governments use it to justify investing more in social programs.
