1
Q
Baddeley (1966) - coding in STM
A
Made 4 groups: acoustically similar, acoustically dissimilar, semantically similar, semantically dissimilar word groups. Tested STM and LTM as asked to repeat in order immediately + after 20min
FOUND: STM recall - acoustically similar worse
LTM recall - semantically similar words were worst
Found STM = acoustic coding, LTM = semantic coding.
2
Q
What did Jacobs (1887) study?
A
The capacity of short-term memory (STM).
3
Q
How did Jacobs (1887) test short-term memory capacity?
A
Participants were given several digits to repeat out loud, with one digit added each time until failure.
4
Q
What was the average capacity of short-term memory found by Jacobs (1887)?
A
9.3 digits.
5
Q
Miller (1956) magic number
A
7 +- 2
6
Q
What did Cowan (2001) conclude about the capacity of short-term memory (STM)? (A03)
A
The capacity of STM is only 4 chunks.
7
Q
What did Cowan (2001) suggest about Miller’s estimate of STM capacity? (AO3)
A
Cowan suggested that Miller may have overestimated the capacity of STM.
8
Q
What factors affect STM capacity? (AO3)
A
Word length, emotion, and individual differences.
9
Q
What year was the Peterson & Peterson study conducted?
A
1959
10
Q
How many undergraduates were tested in the Peterson & Peterson study?
A
24
11
Q
How many trials were conducted in the Peterson & Peterson study?
A
8 trials
12
Q
What type of stimuli were participants given to remember in the Peterson & Peterson study?
A
Consonant trigram
13
Q
What task were participants instructed to do to interfere with rehearsal of the trigram?
A
Count backwards from a 3-digit number
14
Q
What percentage of participants recalled the trigram after 3 seconds?
A
80%
15
Q
What percentage of participants recalled the trigram after 6 seconds?
A
50%
16
Q
What percentage of participants recalled the trigram after 10 seconds?
A
<10%
17
Q
What is a limitation of the P&P study related to stimulus? (AO3)
A
Artificial stimulus - memorizing consonant trigrams doesn’t reflect real life memory activities.
18
Q
How does the P&P study lack external validity? (AO3)
A
It doesn’t reflect memory in the real world.
19
Q
P&P could improve by? (AO3)
A
choosing natural stimulus e.g shopping list
more natural setting e.g. field experiments (RM)
20
Q
What was the focus of Bahrick’s 1975 study?
A
Duration of Long-Term Memory (LTM)
21
Q
What was the sample size and age range in Bahrick’s 1975 study?
A
392 Americans aged 17-74
22
Q
What tasks did participants perform in Bahrick’s 1975 study?
A
Identify people from a yearbook in free recall and photo recall
23
Q
What was the accuracy of photo recall after 15 years in Bahrick’s study?
A
90% accurate
24
Q
What was the accuracy of free recall after 15 years in Bahrick’s study?
A
60% accurate
25
What was the accuracy of photo recognition after 48 years in Bahrick's study?
70% accurate
26
What was the accuracy of free recall after 48 years in Bahrick's study?
30% accurate
27
Who made the MSM?
Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968,1971)
28
Who studied patient KF? (AO3)
Shallice & Warrington
29
What type of memory did patient KF have difficulty with?
Poor memory when digits were read out to him
30
How did patient KF perform when he read digits himself?
He had better memory
31
What does the study of patient KF suggest about short-term memory (STM)?
It suggests there are different STM stores for non-verbal information
32
What does the Multi-Store Model (MSM) state about STM?
STM is unitary
33
What model provides evidence against the unitary view of STM?
Working Memory Model (WMM)
34
What is a criticism of the Multi-Store Model (MSM) based on KF's case?
It is reductionist
35
evaluate case studies in memory (AO3 - KF)
most are idiographic (less generalisable so it's individualistic and specific to one case) - good evidence but too specific
used to support nomothetic (generic) ideas of memory
36
Who discovered the two types of rehearsal?
Craik & Watkins
37
What are the two types of rehearsal identified by Craik & Watkins?
Maintenance rehearsal and prolonged rehearsal
38
What is the function of maintenance rehearsal?
It maintains information in short-term memory (STM) but does not transfer it to long-term memory (LTM)
39
What is the function of prolonged rehearsal?
It transfers information into long-term memory (LTM)
40
What is a serious limitation of the Multi-Store Model (MSM) identified by Craik & Watkins?
Research findings on rehearsal types are not explained by the model
41
Why is MSM reductionist?
could have diff types of STM
rehearsal alone isn't enough to transfer to LTM - meaning assigned beforehand etc.]
42
rehearsal alone isn't enough to transfer to LTM - meaning assigned beforehand etc.]
43
memory is rooted in emotion
44
What did Baddelety (1966) find about STM codes? (AO3 supporting MSM)
Found STM codes acoustically.
45
What does Baddelety's research support regarding the model of memory?
Supports findings of the model and shows STM & LTM are separate stores.
46
What is a limitation of Baddelety's (1966) findings?
His findings are not generalisable.
47
What is another limitation of Baddelety's (1966) study?
Lack of mundane realism.
48
Types of LTM?
semantic - knowledge of world
49
Who explained STM and organised WMM?
Baddeley & Hitch (1994)
50
What did Logie (1995) divide the V-S sketchpad into?
Two parts: visual cache and inner scribe.
51
What does the visual cache store?
Visual data.
52
What does the inner scribe record?
The arrangement of objects in the visual field.
53
Shallice & Warrington (1970) ~(FOR WMM)
KF had poor STM - had difficulty w/ sounds not reading letters - shows his phonological loop was damaged?
54
supports existence of separate visual and acoustic stores
55
methodological limitations of case studies
cant be generalised
56
extreme case - idiographic stance
57
cannot be applied to a population
58
What did Baddeley (2003) suggest about the Working Memory Model (WMM)?
It wasn't well explained, undermining its validity.
59
What criticism did Baddeley (2003) have regarding the Central Executive (CE) in the WMM?
He said it was too simple and should not be viewed just as an 'attentional process'.
60
How can the Working Memory Model (WMM) be seen as reductionist?
It oversimplifies the Central Executive and episodic buffer and does not explain long-term memory (LTM).
61
What did Braver et al. (1997) investigate?
They gave participants tasks that involved the central executive while having brain scans.
62
What did Braver et al. (1997) find regarding the PFCortex?
They found that the PFCortex was active during the tasks.
63
What does the study by Braver et al. (1997) provide evidence for?
It provides scientific evidence supporting the Working Memory Model (WMM).
64
What is a limitation of brain scanning mentioned in the context of Braver et al. (1997)?
Brain scanning is very effective in understanding the brain but is very expensive and could have false positives.
65
Interference theory
Baddeley (1999) stated forgetting occurs because of memories interfering with eachother, disrupting so hindering recall.
66
Who conducted a study on retroactive interference in 1931?
McGeoch and McDonald
67
What did McGeoch and McDonald vary in their study on retroactive interference?
The similarity of word sets between 6 groups (antonyms, synonyms, nonsense, etc.)
68
What was the task participants had to complete in McGeoch and McDonald's study?
Learn a list of 10 words until they could remember them with 100% accuracy
69
What did McGeoch and McDonald find about recalling synonyms?
Participants recalled synonyms worse when memorizing, with interference strongest for synonyms.
70
What was the accuracy of participants recalling synonyms in McGeoch and McDonald's study?
Impaired down to 12% accuracy
71
What did Baddeley and Hitch (1977) investigate in their study on Interference Theory?
They wanted to find out if interference was more after a long time.
72
What method did Baddeley and Hitch (1977) use to study interference?
They asked rugby players to remember who they played that season.
73
What did the results of Baddeley and Hitch (1977) show about recall?
Accurate recall didn't depend on the length of time between playing a match and recall, but on the number of games played in between.
74
What is a key strength of Baddeley and Hitch's (1977) study regarding its application?
It shows real-world application and has high ecological validity.
75
What study did Tulving & Psotka conduct in 1971?
They studied the effects of categorization on word recall.
76
How many words were given to participants in Tulving & Psotka's study?
24 words
77
How were the 24 words categorized in Tulving & Psotka's study?
Each list was divided into 6 categories, with every 3 words being similar.
78
What was the recall percentage for the first word in the study?
0.7
79
What happened to recall accuracy as participants were given more lists to memorize?
Recall accuracy fell.
80
What was the recall accuracy when participants were given a cued recall test?
It rose to 70% accuracy again.
81
What did the study by Tulving & Psotka demonstrate about cues?
Cues can enhance recall.
82
What are two limitations of Tulving & Psotka's study?
No semantic meaning of words and word length can affect remembering.
83
What assumption did researchers make about participants in Tulving & Psotka's study?
They assumed participants could recognize the categories.
84
What is an issue with studies on interference?
the time between learning a list and another list them being tested on both is very short, so doesn't reflect IRL and questions validity - testing STM not LTM
85
Why is it tricky to study learning processes IRL?
lots of extraneous variables
86
lack of control
87
individual differences
88
file drawer bias
89
What is the encoding specificity principle?
individuals recall is enhanced when surrounded by environment they learnt info in
90
Who made the ESP?
Tulving et al. (1983)
91
Golden and Baddeley (1975)
asked divers to learn list of words on water or on land then asked to recall in opposite places then same places
92
FOUND: recall 40% lower in non-matching conditions -> maybe due to lack of external cues at recall
93
Who conducted a study in 1998 involving antihistamines and memory?
Carter and Cassady
94
What was the purpose of giving participants antihistamines in the study by Carter and Cassady?
To create an awake vs alert state to test memory.
95
What was found regarding recall when there was a difference between states in the study?
Recall was worse, indicating a lack of retrieval cues leads to forgetting.
96
What is retrieval failure in the context of memory?
Retrieval failure is a theory that suggests forgetting occurs when the information is not accessible due to a lack of appropriate cues.
97
Who suggested that retrieval failure may be the main reason for forgetting?
Eysenck (2010)
98
How does research support for retrieval failure increase the validity of the explanation?
It provides evidence that retrieval failure occurs in real-life situations.
99
AO3 Retrieval Failure - whats an alternative explanation for forgetting?
Interference theory
100
What did Baddeley (1997) argue about context effects on retrieval failure?
He argued that context effects are not very strong in real life.
101
Why does Baddeley (1997) believe people are unlikely to forget due to different environments?
Most environments are similar and not as drastically different as being on land versus underwater.
102
What is a limitation of Golden and Baddeley's research regarding external validity?
While divers are comfortable underwater, the study's external validity is not very high.
103
What aspect of Golden and Baddeley's research supports its external validity?
Divers being comfortable underwater makes the findings applicable to similar contexts.
104
Why is ESP considered not testable?
It leads to circular reasoning.
105
What does ESP assume that leads to issues in testing?
It assumes encoding.
106
What is the problem with establishing correlation in ESP?
It does not establish causation.
107
Why is it impossible to test the validity of ESP?
We cannot prove that information is being coded.
108
What complicates the assumption about where information is coded in ESP?
It is impossible to assume that information was coded within the same room it was learned.
109
Who conducted a study on the effect of wording on speed estimation in 1974?
Loftus & Palmer
110
How many American students participated in the Loftus & Palmer (1974) study?
45
111
What were the students in the Loftus & Palmer (1974) study asked to estimate?
The speed of a car in a crash
112
What different verbs were used in the Loftus & Palmer (1974) study to ask about the crash?
Contacted, smashed, bumped into
113
What was the main finding of the Loftus & Palmer (1974) study?
Estimated speed was affected by the verb used
114
What does the Loftus & Palmer (1974) study demonstrate about eyewitness testimony?
It is affected by leading questions
115
What was the focus of the 2nd L&P experiment?
To test how leading questions affect eyewitness testimony.
116
How many students were tested in the 2nd L&P experiment?
150 students.
117
What were participants asked to estimate in the 2nd L&P experiment?
The speed of a car before it hit or smashed into another car.
118
What percentage of the 'smashed' group reported seeing broken glass?
0.32
119
What percentage of the 'hit' group reported seeing broken glass?
0.14
120
What percentage of the control group reported seeing broken glass?
0.12
121
What was notable about the scene of the accident in the 2nd L&P experiment?
There was no broken glass at the scene.
122
What type of questions were used in the 2nd L&P experiment?
Leading questions.
123
Gabbert et al (2003)
post event discussion- independent groups design but studied in pairs- each participant watched same crime but from different perspectives then asked to discuss
124
FOUND: 71% of participants reported things they didn't see but heard from others.
125
control group had 100% accuracy
126
Anastasi & Rhodes (2006) - AO3 for misleading info
found people 18-25 & 35-45 more accurate than 55-78+ but people more accurate identifying others their own age - age bias.
127
shows wide range of individual diffs affect effectiveness of EWT
128
other individual differences : age, gender, memory
129
Zaragosa & McCloskey (1989) - Misleading info
said answers given by participants in lab studies could be due to demand characteristics - want to appear helpful
130
shows demand characteristics reduce validity of findings
131
strengths of lab studies
high levels of control
132
replicable
133
high internal validity
134
not many extraneous variables affecting results
135
Johnson & Scott (1976) Anxiety
led participants to believe doing lab study but in waiting room overheard argument.
136
2 conditions:
137
-low anxiety - man holding greasy pen
138
-high anxiety - man holding knife with blood (paper knife)
139
FOUND: low anx - 49% correctly ideitified man
140
high anx - 33% identified man correct
141
limitations of J&S
demand characteristics
142
lack of mundane realism - not generalisable
143
lack of operationalisation of anxiety
144
deception used - BPS ethics about informed consent
145
psychological harm
146
leading questions?
147
Yuille and Cutshall (1986)
conducted study of real shooting in Vancouver when shop owner shot thief dead
148
21 witnesses - 13 agreed to be in study
149
held interview over 4-5 months
150
asked witnesses stress levels
151
FOUND: witnesses very accurate in account - some details e.g. colours etc. less clear - ppl w higher stress more accurate (88% vs 75% in lower anxiety)
152
Yerkes & Dodson Law (1908)
established relationship between arousal and performance was inverted U
153
what is a schema
a mental framework developed through experiences that have set expectations for what we expect to see around us
154
Why is Anxiety difficult to measure accurately? (AO3 point)
Anxiety is hard to operationalise and anxiety can be affected by individual differences etc.
155
Y&S highly reductionist as it only considers one factor and doesn't offer complete understanding of anxiety.
156
Anxiety is hard to measure, so cannot be measured as a factor affecting EWT
157
Pickel (1998) - AO3 on J&S
conducted experiment using man carrying raw chicken, handgun or scissors
158
found EWT poorer in high unusualness condition - shows weapon focus effect may be due to unusualness rather than anxiety/ threat - doesnt show us affects of anxiety
159
evaluate use of lab studies in J&S context
high internal validity
160
lack of mundane realism
161
not generalisable
162
replicable + reliable
163
individual differences not accounted for
164
Kebbell and Wagstaff (1996) (Cognitive interviews)
police may be reluctant to use CI because high training required so more expensive and time consuming + more time than standard interviews
165
so unlikely proper CI is used
166
Benefits of CI
improves accuracy of EWT
167
allows for retrieval cues
168
shows IRL consequences could lead to poor judgement
169
info too long to filter out for police
170
prevents impact of schema
171
Milne & Bull (2002)
172
cognitive interview
found each individual element of CI was valuable
173
found report everything + context reinstatement in combination were just as effective as entire interview
174
shows even w/ only 2 out of 4 elements, CI can still be effective - increases credibility
175
Kohnken et al (1999) meta analysis
did meta analysis on 50 studies and found ECI consistenly provided more correct info than standard interview
176
shows practical benefits to police of using ECI
177
beneficial to society
178
found 81% increase in correct info but also 61% increase in incorrect info in ECI - inaccurate recall from CI can cause big issues
179
evaluate use of meta analyses
reviews a wide data set is representative
180
doesn't account for individual differences or extraneous variables
181
file drawer bias
182
lack of standardisation of ways of measuring effectiveness of CI techniques.
AQA Psychology A Level
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