bio 233 > Untitled Deck > Flashcards

Untitled Deck Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the study of structure called?

A

Anatomy

In this class, anatomy specifically refers to the structures of the human body.

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2
Q

What is the study of function in the body called?

A

Physiology

Physiology focuses on how things work within the body.

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3
Q

What does the saying ‘Form follows function; function follows form’ imply?

A

There is a relationship between form and function

Understanding this relationship helps in studying anatomy and physiology.

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4
Q

Define homeostasis.

A

The state of body equilibrium; maintenance of a stable internal environment

Homeostasis involves thousands of functions working together in the body.

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5
Q

What is referred to as a stressor?

A

Anything that disrupts homeostasis

Stressors can impact the body’s stable internal environment.

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6
Q

What is the impact of stress on homeostasis?

A

It impacts homeostasis, requiring the body to respond

The body utilizes feedback mechanisms to deal with stress.

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7
Q

What are the two basic types of feedback mechanisms?

A
  • Negative feedback mechanisms
  • Positive feedback mechanisms

These mechanisms help the body maintain or move away from homeostasis.

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8
Q

What do negative feedback mechanisms do?

A

Move the body back toward homeostasis

They help restore normal body functions.

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9
Q

What do positive feedback mechanisms do?

A

Move the body away from homeostasis

This can occur in situations of stress or emergency.

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10
Q

True or false: Positive feedback mechanisms are less common than negative feedback mechanisms.

A

FALSE

Positive feedback mechanisms can occur frequently, such as in stress responses.

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11
Q

In a stressful situation, such as encountering a growling dog, what physiological responses occur?

A
  • Heart rate increases
  • Breathing increases
  • Sweating occurs

These responses illustrate a positive feedback mechanism moving away from homeostasis.

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12
Q
A
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13
Q

What is an element?

A

A substance that cannot be broken down into other substances by chemical means

There are currently 118 elements; 92 occur in nature.

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14
Q

How many elements are currently known?

A

118

92 of these elements can be found in nature.

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15
Q

What is the chemical symbol for an element?

A

1 or 2 letters; first letter is upper case, second letter is lower case if present

Examples: H for Hydrogen, Na for Sodium.

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16
Q

What is an atom?

A

The smallest unit of an element that retains the properties of the element

Atoms are composed of sub-atomic particles and lots of space.

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17
Q

What makes up the nucleus of an atom?

A
  • Protons
  • Neutrons

The nucleus is the center of an atom.

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18
Q

What are protons?

A

Positively charged particles with a weight of 1

The number of protons determines the atomic number of an element.

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19
Q

What are neutrons?

A

Particles with no charge and a weight of 1

Neutrons contribute to the atomic weight of an atom.

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20
Q

What is the atomic number?

A

The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom

All atoms of an element have the same atomic number.

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21
Q

What is the atomic weight (mass number)?

A

The average weight of an atom of an element relative to Carbon 12

Generally equals the number of protons + number of neutrons.

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22
Q

What is an isotope?

A

Atoms with the same number of protons and electrons, but different number of neutrons

Isotopes have different atomic weights.

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23
Q

What is a compound?

A

A substance that contains a combination of two or more elements

Compounds are formed through chemical bonds.

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24
Q

What is an ion?

A

An atom that carries an electrical charge

Formed through the loss or gain of an electron.

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25
What does **oxidation** refer to?
The loss of an electron ## Footnote Oxidation results in the formation of positively charged ions.
26
What does **reduction** refer to?
The gain of an electron ## Footnote Reduction results in the formation of negatively charged ions.
27
What is **organic chemistry**?
The study of substances which contain carbon ## Footnote Organic compounds are essential for life.
28
What is **inorganic chemistry**?
The study of substances which do not contain carbon ## Footnote Inorganic compounds include minerals and metals.
29
What are **ionic bonds**?
Bonds formed when electrons are transferred from one atom to another ## Footnote Atoms involved have opposite charges and are attracted to one another.
30
What are **covalent bonds**?
Bonds formed through the sharing of a pair of electrons between two atoms ## Footnote Atoms share electrons to fill their outer orbitals.
31
What is a **polar covalent bond**?
A bond with uneven sharing of electrons ## Footnote Water is an example of a polar bond.
32
What is a **non-polar covalent bond**?
A bond with even sharing of electrons ## Footnote Occurs between atoms with the same number of protons.
33
What is a **double bond**?
Involves the sharing of two pairs of electrons between the same atoms ## Footnote Double bonds are stronger than single bonds.
34
What is a **triple bond**?
Involves the sharing of three pairs of electrons between the same atoms ## Footnote Triple bonds are even stronger than double bonds.
35
What is a **hydrogen bond**?
A weak bond occurring when a weak electropositive hydrogen atom is attracted to an electronegative atom ## Footnote Hydrogen bonding is not unique to water.
36
Define an **acid**.
Any substance that releases Hydrogen ions (H+) when it dissociates ## Footnote Acids increase the concentration of H+ in a solution.
37
Define a **base**.
Any substance that takes up Hydrogen ions (H+) or releases Hydroxide ions (OH-) ## Footnote Bases decrease the concentration of H+ in a solution.
38
What is **pH**?
A scale for measuring Hydrogen ion concentration ## Footnote Ranges from 0 (most acidic) to 14 (most basic).
39
What is a **buffer**?
A chemical or group of chemicals that can take up or release hydrogen or hydroxyl ions ## Footnote Buffers help maintain pH balance in biological systems.
40
What are **carbohydrates** commonly referred to as?
Sugars and/or starches ## Footnote They have the general formula CnH2nOn.
41
What is a **monosaccharide**?
A simple sugar with 3 to 7 carbons ## Footnote Examples include Ribose, Glucose, and Fructose.
42
What are **isomers**?
Substances with the same empirical formula but different structures ## Footnote Glucose, galactose, and fructose are examples.
43
What is a **dehydration synthesis reaction**?
The joining of two smaller molecules into one larger molecule through the removal of water ## Footnote Also known as a condensation reaction.
44
What are **isomers**?
Compounds with the same chemical formula but different structures ## Footnote Examples include glucose, galactose, and fructose.
45
Define **Dehydration Synthesis Reaction**.
Joining two smaller molecules into one larger molecule through the removal of water ## Footnote Also known as a condensation reaction.
46
What is **Hydrolysis**?
The addition of water to break a large molecule into two smaller ones ## Footnote It is the reverse of dehydration synthesis.
47
What is the chemical formula of a **disaccharide**?
C12H22O11 ## Footnote Formed by joining two monosaccharides through dehydration synthesis.
48
Name some examples of **disaccharides**.
* Maltose: Glucose + Glucose * Sucrose: Glucose + Fructose * Lactose: Glucose + Galactose ## Footnote Disaccharides are formed through dehydration synthesis.
49
What are **polysaccharides**?
Carbohydrates made by joining many monosaccharides together ## Footnote Examples include starch and glycogen.
50
What is **glycogen**?
The storage form of carbohydrate in humans ## Footnote It is converted back to glucose when needed.
51
What are the primary characteristics of **lipids**?
* Generally not soluble in water * Composed of carbon and hydrogen in a 1:2 ratio with less oxygen than carbohydrates ## Footnote Commonly referred to as fats, oils, or waxes.
52
What are **fatty acids**?
Carbon chains with attached hydrogens, with a carboxyl group at one end ## Footnote Classified as saturated or unsaturated.
53
What is a **triglyceride**?
Composed of one glycerol and three fatty acid molecules ## Footnote Important for energy storage and insulation.
54
What are **phospholipids**?
Composed of one glycerol, two fatty acids, and one phosphate group ## Footnote Crucial for cell membrane structure.
55
What are **steroids**?
Lipids with a structure consisting of four carbon rings ## Footnote Includes cholesterol and some hormones.
56
What are **eicosanoids**?
Lipids derived from arachidonic acid, involved in signaling ## Footnote Includes prostaglandins and leukotrienes.
57
What is **collagen**?
The most abundant protein in the human body ## Footnote Associated with skin, bones, tendons, and organ structure.
58
What are the two classes of **nucleic acids**?
* DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) * RNA (ribonucleic acid) ## Footnote DNA contains the genetic code, while RNA transfers the code.
59
What are the three types of **RNA**?
* rRNA (ribosomal RNA) * tRNA (transfer RNA) * mRNA (messenger RNA) ## Footnote Each type plays a specific role in protein synthesis.
60
What is the role of **enzymes**?
Biological catalysts that lower the activation energy of reactions ## Footnote They allow reactions to proceed at normal body temperatures.
61
List the characteristics of **enzymes**.
* Catalysts * Protein or protein-based * Specific to one reaction * Can catalyze the same reaction multiple times * Not used up in reactions * Affected by environmental factors ## Footnote Enzymes are crucial for metabolic processes.
62
What is **denaturation**?
The breaking of hydrogen bonds in proteins, destroying their secondary structure ## Footnote Can be caused by chemical interactions, pH, and heat.
63
What can **zymes** do in a reaction?
Catalyze the same reaction many times ## Footnote Enzymes are never used up or permanently altered by a reaction.
64
What are the factors that **affect enzymes**?
* Amount of substrate * pH * Temperature ## Footnote These factors can influence enzyme activity and effectiveness.
65
What are the **specific areas** where a substrate can bind to an enzyme called?
Active sites ## Footnote The binding of substrates to these sites forms an intermediate complex.
66
What is formed when an enzyme binds to substrates?
Enzyme-substrate complex ## Footnote This complex is crucial for the enzyme's catalytic function.
67
What is a **competitive inhibitor**?
A substrate that resembles the correct substrate and competes for the active site ## Footnote It prevents the enzyme from functioning properly.
68
What are **non-competitive inhibitors**?
Substances that bind to the enzyme at a site other than the active site ## Footnote They prevent the enzyme from binding with its proper substrate.
69
What are **toxins or poisons** in relation to enzymes?
Inhibitors that stop the right enzyme from catalyzing the right reaction ## Footnote This can lead to severe consequences, including death.
70
Define **glycoproteins**.
Large proteins with carbohydrates attached ## Footnote Important in cellular recognition and immune response.
71
Define **proteoglycans**.
Large carbohydrates with proteins attached ## Footnote They play a role in the structure and function of tissues.
72
Define **glycolipids**.
Large lipids with carbohydrates attached ## Footnote They are involved in cell recognition and signaling.
73
What does **ATP** stand for?
Adenosine triphosphate ## Footnote ATP is crucial for energy transfer in cells.
74
What is the primary source of **ATP** in humans?
Glucose ## Footnote Energy is derived from the bonds in glucose.
75
What percentage of the adult human body is made up of **water**?
60% to 75% ## Footnote Certain parts of the body can be up to 90% water.
76
List some **properties of water**.
* Good solvent * Medium for chemical reactions * High heat capacity * Lubricant ## Footnote These properties are essential for physiological processes.
77
What causes the **properties of water**?
Polarity ## Footnote Polarity results from the unequal sharing of electrons.
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