1
Q
A
2
Q
Organs of the urinary system
Image
A
3
Q
Main Waste Products excreted in urine
A
- urea-comes from the breakdown of amino acids during recylcling of body’s proteins
- uric acid- results from the body’s turnover over of nucleic acids
- creatine- formed by the breakdown of creatine phosphate:
- a molecule in muscle that stores energy for the manufacture of ATP
4
Q
Functions of the kidney
A
- dispose of wastes and excess ions
- regulate the volume and chemical makeup of the blood
- maintain the proper balance of water and salts and of acids and bases
5
Q
Kidneys
A
- bean shaped
- lie retroperitoneal in lumbar region of the posterior abdominal wall
- from 3rd lumbar vertebrae to to 11th or 12th thoracic vertebrae
- avg=12cm high, 6cm wide and 3 cm thick
6
Q
differences between left and right kidney
A
- right kidney is crowded by the liver
- right kidney lies slightly inferior to left kidney
7
Q
hilum of kidney
A
- a vertical cleft on the medial (concave) surface
- site where vessels, ureters, and nerves enter and exit kidney
8
Q
Fibrous capsule of kidney
A
- a thin, tough layer of dense connective tissue
- adheres directly to surface of kidney
- inhibits spread of infection from surrounding regions
9
Q
perirenal fat capsule of kidney
A
- external to the fibrous capsule
- supportive tissue
- cushion the kidney against blows and holds it in place
10
Q
renal fascia
A
- envelope between perirenal capsule and pararenal fat
11
Q
pararenal fat
A
- external to and posterior to renal fascia
- cushions kidney against blows and helps keep kidneys in place
12
Q
surgical approach to kidney
A
- Through posterolateral abdominal wall
- very few muscles, vessels or nerves need to be cut
- need to avoid t12 area to avoid puncturing pleural cavity and causing pneumothorax
13
Q
two distinct regions of kidney tissue
A
- renal cortex:
- most superficial region
- light in color
- more granular appearance
- renal medulla:
- darker in color
- consists of cone-shaped masses called renal pyramids
14
Q
renal lobes
A
- a single renal pyramid plus the cortical tissue that surrounds that pyramid
- each kidney has 5-11 lobes and pyramids
15
Q
renal pyramids
A
- apex (papilla) points interiorly
- exhibit striations:
- roughly parallel bundles of tiny urine collecting tubules
16
Q
renal sinus
A
- a large space within the medial part of the kidney opening to the exterior through the renal hilium
- a “filled space” full of:
- renal vessels and nerves
- some fat
- renal pelvis and calices
17
Q
renal pelvis
A
- pelvis=basin
- a flat, funnel-shaped tube
- the expanded superior part of the ureter
- branches with major calices
- urine from calices flows into the pelvis and on to the ureter
18
Q
major calices
A
- calyx singular
- 2-3 branching extensions of renal pelvis
- urine filled tubes
- divide further to form several minor calices
19
Q
minor calices
A
- extensions from the major calices
- cup-shaped tubes that enclose the papillae of the pyramids
- collect urine during draining from papillae and empty it into the renal pelvis
20
Q
pyelitis
A
- infection/inflammation of the renal pelvis and calices
21
Q
pyelonephritis
A
- when pyelitis spreads to involve the rest of the kidney
- nephros=kidney
- results from
- spread of fecal bacterium (escherichia coli) from the anal region superiorly through the urinary tract
- bloodborne bacteria lodge in the kidneys and proliferate there
- kidney scars, abcesses form, and the renal pelvis fills with pus
- left untreated, the infected kidneys may be severely damaged
- antibiotics usually totally cures it
22
Q
renal arteries
A
- offers rich blood supply to kidneys
- about 1/4 of heart’s systemic output reaches kidneys through here
- branch at right angles from the abdominal aorta
- right renal artery is longer than left (due aorta slightly off midline)
23
Q
segmental arteries of kidney
A
- the five divisions of the renal artery
- enter the hilium
24
Q
interlobar arteries of kidneys
A
- division of segmental arteries
- division occurs in renal sinus
- lie in the renal columns between renal pyramids
25
arcuate arteries
* the division of interlobar arteries at the medulla cortex
* "shaped like a bow"
* arch over the bases of the renal pyramids
26
cortical radiate arteries of kidneys
* division of arcuate arteries
* radiate outward
* supply the cortical tissue with blood
* more than 90% of the blood entering the kidneys comes through the cortex
27
glomerular arterioles of kidneys
* stem from cortical radiate arteries
* feed into *peritubular capillaries*
28
Peritubular Capillaries of kidneys
* surround the tubules in the kidney
* come from glomerular arterioles
*
29
Veins of kidney
* trace the pathway of arteries in reverse
* blood leaving the renal cortex drains sequentially:
* cortical radiate
* arcuate
* interlobar
* renal veins (no segmental veins)
* renal vein exits at hilium and empties into inferior vena cava
* left renal vein is longer (about twice as long) because inferior vena cava lies on the right side of the vertebral column
30
renal plexus
* the nerve supply of the kidney
* a network of autonomic ganglia on the renal arteries
* offshoot of the celiac plexus
31
uriniferous tubule
| (microscopic anatomy of kidneys)
* The main structural and functional unit of the kidney
* lined by simple epithelium adapted for production of urine
* more than a million in each kidney
* uriniferous=urine carrying
* two parts:
1. urine-forming *nephron*
2. *collecting duct*
32
Mechanisms of urine production
* filtration
* resorption
* secretion
33
filtration
mechanism of urine production
* filtered blood leaves kidney capillaries and enters uriniferous tubule
* filtrate resembles tissue fluid
* as it proceeds through the uriniferous tube the filtrate is processed into urine through resorption and secretion
34
resorption
mechanism of urine production
* most nutrients (water/essential ions) are recovered from filtrate and returned to blood of capillaries
* 99% of the volume of renal filtrate is resorbed
* remaining wastes and unneeded substances contribute to urine that eventually leaves body
35
secretion
mechanism of urine production
* moves additional undesirable molecules into the tubule from blood of surrounding capillaries
* active process
36
Nephron
| (microscopic anatomy of kidneys)
* where filtration, resorption, and secretion occur
* Composed of:
* *renal corpsucle*
* *tubular section*
37
renal corpsucle
of the nephron
of uriniferous tubule
* the first part of the nephron
* where filtration occurs
* occur strictly in the cortex
* consist of:
* glomerulus
* glomerular capsule
38
glomerulus
of the renal corpsucle
of the nephron
of the uriniferous tubules
of the kidney
* a tuft of capillaries
* "ball of yarn"
* surrounded by glomerular capsule like a fist in an underinflated balloon
39
glomerular capsule
of the renal corpsucle
of the nephron
of the uriniferous tubules
of the kidney
* aka Bowman's capsule
* cup-shaped
* hollow
40
capsular space
of the renal corpsucle
of the nephron
of the uriniferous tubules
of the kidney
* the hollow interior of the glomerular capsule
* large quantities of fluid passes from capillary blood into here
41
fluid of the capsular space
of the renal corpsucle
of the nephron
of the uriniferous tubules
of the kidney
* the filtrate that is ultimately processed into urine
* only about 20% of fluid leaves the glomerulus and enters the capsular space
* the remaining 80% remains in the blood
42
parietal layer
of glomerular capsule
of the renal corpsucle
of the nephron
of the uriniferous tubules
of the kidney
* Simple squamous epithelium
* plays no part in formation of filtrate
43
visceral layer
of glomerular capsule
of the renal corpsucle
of the nephron
of the uriniferous tubules
of the kidney
* clings to the glomerulus
* consists of branching epithelial cells called podocytes
44
podocytes
of the visceral layer
of glomerular capsule
of the renal corpsucle
of the nephron
of the uriniferous tubules
of the kidney
* unusual branching octopus-like epithelial cells
* end in *foot processes, or pedicles*, that surround the glomerular capillaries
* filtrate passes into capsular space through *filtration slits or slit pores*
* thin clefts between the foot processes
45
Filtration membrane
of the renal corpsucle
of the nephron
of the uriniferous tubules
of the kidney
* filter that lies between the blood in the glomerulus and the capsular space
* 3 layers:
1. fenestrated endothelium (pores) of the capillary
* restrict the passage of largest elements like blood cells
2. the filtration slits between the foot processes of the podocyte
3. an intervening basement membrane composed of the fused basal laminae of the endothelium and the podocyte epithelium
* filtration slits and basement membrane hold back all but the smallest proteins. Allow passage of ions, water, glucose, amino acids, urea and small proteins
46
tubular section
of the nephron
of the uriniferous tubules
of the kidney
* filtrate comes here from renal corpsucle
* contains:
* proximal convoluted tubule
* the loop of henle
* the distal convoluted tubule
* ends by joining a collecting duct
* meandering nature of the nephron:
* increases length
* enhances its capabilities in processing the filtrate
47
proximal convoluted tubule
of the tubular section
of the nephron
of the uriniferous tubules
of the kidney
* confined entirely to renal cortex
* most active in resorption and secretion
* cuboidal epithelia with fuzzy microvilli to increase surface area for resorption
* contain many mitochondria which provide energy for resorption
48
Loop of Henle
of the tubular section
of the nephron
of the uriniferous tubules
of the kidney
* aka Loop of Nephron
* consists of a ascending and descending limb
* U-Shaped
49
Descending limb
of the
Loop of Henle
of the tubular section
of the nephron
of the uriniferous tubules
of the kidney
* continuous with the proximal tubule
* has a singular structure
* the rest of the descending limb is the *thin segment*
* the narrowest part of the nephron
* permeable simple squamous epithelium
* continues into the ascending limb
50
Thick ascending limb
of the Loop of Henle
of the tubular section
of the nephron
of the uriniferous tubules
of the kidney
* cell structure resembles that of the distal convoluted tube
* continuation of the thin segment
51
Distal Convoluted Tubule
of the tubular section
of the nephron
of the uriniferous tubules
of the kidney
* confined to the renal cortex
* simple cuboidal epithelial walls
* specialized for selective secretion and absorption of ions
* less active in absorption than proximal tube
* no abundance of microvilli
* many mitochondria and infoldings of the basolateral membrane
52
Classes of Nephrons
* Two categories:
* cortical nephrons
* juxtamedullary nephrons
53
Cortical Nephrons
* 85% of nephrons
* located entirely within the cortex
* loops of henle dips only a short distance into the medulla
54
Juxtamedullary Nephrons
* remaining 15% of Nephrons
* "near the medulla"
* renal corpuscles lie near the cortex-medulla junction
* loops of henle deeply invade medulla
* thin segments are much longer than those of cortical nephrons
* loop of henle contribute to kidney's ability to produce concentrated urine
55
Collecting ducts
of Uniferous Tubules
of Kidneys
* consist of simple cuboidal epithelium
* Urine passes here from distal tubules of nephrons
* each receives urine from several nephrons
* runs straight through the cortex into the deep medulla
* at the papilla of the pyramid, adjacent collecting ducts join together to form larger *papillary ducts*
56
Role of Collecting Ducts
* a few are rich in mitochondria and participate in resorption and secretion of ions
* most important role:
* conserve body fluids (along with the distal tubules of nephrons)
1. Body needs to conserve water
2. ADH hormone is secreted by posterior part of pituitary gland
3. permeability of collecting ducts and distal tubues to water increases
4. water is resorbed from filtrate
5. total volume of urine produced is decreased
57
Alcohol and Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
* inhibits the release of ADH
* water resorption from renal tubules is reduced
* copious amounts of dilute urine is produced
* potential dehyrdration can occur
58
papillary ducts
* adjacent collecting ducts joined together
* empties into the minor calices
* simple cuboidal epithelium of collecting ducts thickens to become simple columnar epithelium
59
Microscopic Blood Vessels associated with Uriniferous Tubules
1. Glomeruli
2. Peritubular Capillaries
3. Vasa Recta
60
Glomeruli
(Microscopic Blood Vessels Associated with Uniferous Tubules)
of the Kidney
* Capillary bed
* both fed and drained by arterioles
* *afferent and efferent arterioles*
61
Filtrate generation of Kidneys
* Kidneys generate 1 liter (about 1 quart) of filtrate every 8 minutes
* only 1% ends up as urine
* 99% is resorbed by uniferous tubule and returned to the blood in *peritubular capillary beds*
62
afferent/efferent arterioles
of Glomeruli
(Microscopic Blood Vessels Associated with Uriniferous Tubules)
* afferent feed glomeruli
* efferent drain glomeruli
* Afferent arise from the *cortical radiate arteries *that run through the renal cortex
* high-resistance vessels
* efferent are narrower than afferent
* blood pressure in glomerulus is extra high for cappilary bed and easily forces the filtrate out of the blood and into the glomerular capsule
63
peritubular capillaries
(microscopic blood vessels associated with uriniferous tubules)
* intertubular capillaries
* arise from the efferent arterioles draining in the cortical glomeruli
* lie in the interstitial loose connective tissue that surrounds the uriniferous tubules
* empty into nearby venules of the renal venous system
* adapted for absorption
* low pressure
* porous
* all molecules secreted bt nephrons into the urine are from the blood of nearby peritubular capillaries
64
vasa recta
(microscopic blood vessels associated with uriniferous tubules)
* "straight vessels"
* part of the kidney's urine-concentrating mechanism
* in the deepest part of the renal cortex
* thin-walled looping vessels
* efferent arterioles from the juxtamedullary glomeruli
* hairpin loops descend into the medulla
* run alongside the loops of henle
65
Juxtaglomerular Apparatus
of the uriniferous tubulules
of the kidneys
* "near the glomerulus"
* functions in the regulation of blood pressure
* an area of specialized contact between the terminal end of the ascending limb of the loop of Henle and the afferent arteriole
66
granular cells
of the Juxtaglomerular Apparatus
of the uriniferous tubulules
of the kidneys
* aka juxtaglomerular cells
* modified smooth muscle cells
* have secretory granules containing the hormone *RENIN (Kidney Hormone)*
* mechanoreceptors that secrete renin in response to falling blood pressure in the afferent arteriole
67
Macula Densa
of the Juxtaglomerular Apparatus
of the uriniferous tubulules
of the kidneys
* "dense spot"
* terminal portion of the loop of Henle adjacent to the granular cells
* consists of tall, closely packed epithelial cells that act as chemoreceptors for monitoring solute concentrations in the filtrate
68
Action of the Juxtaglomerular Apparatus
of the uriniferous tubules
1. solute concentration falls below certain level
2. macula densa cells signal granular cells
3. granular cells secrete renin
4. renin initiates a sequence of chemical reactions in the blood (renin-angiotensin mechanism)
5. results in secretion of aldosterone to increase sodium resorption from distal convoluted tubules
6. blood-solute concentration increases
69
extraglomerular mesangial cells
of the Juxtaglomerular Apparatus
of the uriniferous tubulules
of the kidneys
* interact with cells of the macula densa and granular cells to regulate blood pressure
70
Ureters
* slender tubes (25 cm/10 inches)
* carry urine from kidneys to bladder
* begins superiorly at L2 as continuation of the renal pelvis
* descends retroperitoneal through the abdomen
* enters the true pelvis by crossing the pelvic brim at the sacroiliac joint
* enters the posterolateral corner of the bladder
* then runs medially within the posterior bladder wall before opening into the bladder's interior
* this oblique entry prevents backflow of urine into the ureters
* any increase of pressure within bladder compresses the bladder wall, closing the distal ends of the ureters
71
pyelography
* radiograhic procedure for examining the ureters and renal calices
* image=pyelogram
72
Histology of the Ureters
| (Microscopic Anatomy)
* same as renal calices and renal pelvis
1. mucosa
2. muscularis
3. adentitia
73
Mucosa
of the ureters
(Microscopic Anatomy)
* transitional epithelium that stretches when ureters fill with urine
* lamina propria composed of stretchy fibroelastic connective tissue with rare patches of lymphoid tissue
74
muscularis
of the ureters
(Microscopic Anatomy)
* middle layer of wall
* consists of two layers of smooth muscle:
1. inner longitudinal layer
2. outer circular layer
* A third layer of muscularis, an external longitudinal layer, appears in the inferior third of the ureter
75
Adventitia
of the ureters
(Microscopic Anatomy)
* exernal layer of wall
* typical connective tissue
76
Function or Ureters
* active role in transporting urine
* contraction of muscularis sets up peristalstic waves that propel urine to the bladder
* urine does not reach bladder by gravity alone
77
Urinary Bladder
* a collapsible muscular sac that stores and expels urine
* lies inferior to the peritoneal cavity on the pelvic floor posterior to the pubic symphysis
* In males it lies anterior to rectum
* In females it lies anterior to vagina and uterus
78
Urachus
of urinary bladder
* "urinary canal of the fetus"
* at the apex or anterior angle of bladder
* a fibrous band
* closed remnant of an embryonic tube called *allantois*
79
Orientation of Urinary bladder
* two posterolateral angles receive ureters
* anterior angle has urachus
* inferior angle drains into urethra
* in maes, the prostate lies directly inferior to the bladder, surrounding the urethra
80
Histology of Urinary Bladder
1. mucosa with a distensible transitional epithelium and lamina propria
2. thick muscular layer
3. fibrous adventitia (except on the superior surface which is covered by parietal peritoneum
81
Detrusor muscle
of the urinary bladder
* the middle, muscular layer
* highly intermingled smooth muscle fibers
* inner and outer longitudinal layers
* middle circular layer
* contraction squeezes urine from bladder during urination
82
Adult Bladder
* full can hold up to about 500 ml (1 pint) of urine
* 15 times its empty volume
83
Trigone
of the urinary bladder
* triangular region on posterior wall
* infections tend to persist in this region
84
Urethra
* a thin-walled tube that drains urine from the bladder out of the body
* consists of smooth muscle and inner mucosa
* in males the muscle layer becomes very thin toward the distal end
85
Histology of Urethra
* towards bladder it is transitional epithelium
* in the midurethra it is stratified and pseudostratified columnar epithelium
* near the end of the urethra it turns stratified squamous
86
internal urethra sphincter
* a thickening of the detrusor muscle ath the bladder-urethra junction
* involuntary sphincter
* smooth muscle
* keeps urethra closed when urine is not being passed and prevents dribbling of urine between voidings
87
external urethral sphincter
* surrounds the urethra within the sheet of muscle called *urogenital diaphragm*
* a skeletal muscle used to inhibit urination voluntarily until proper time
88
Urethra in females
* 3-4 cm (1.5 inches)
* bound to the anterior wall of vagina by connective tissue
* opens to the outside at the *external urethral orifice*
89
external urethral orifice
* in females only
* the outside opening of urethra
* a small opening
* lies anterior to the vaginal opening
* lies posterior to the clitoris
* often difficult to locate
90
Urethra in males
* about 20 cm long (8 inches)
* 3 named regions:
1. prostatic urethra
2. membranous urethra
3. spongy urethra
* Carries ejaculating semen as well as urine (not simultaneously)
91
Prostatic Urethra
* in males only
* 2.5 cm long
* runs in prostate
92
membranous urethra
* In males only
* 2.5 cm long
* runs through the membranelike urogenital diaphragm
93
spongy urethra
* 15 cm long
* passes through entire penis
* opens at tip of penis via the *external urethral orifice*
94
Micturition
* aka voiding
* aka urination
* Detrusor muscle contracts, assisted by muscles in abdominal wall
* controlled by the brain
95
Neuronal pathways involved in Micturition
* urine accumulates in the bladder, distension activates stretch receptors
* They send sensory impulses through visceral sensory neurons to sacral region of spinal cord
* from spinal cord up to a micurition center in dorsal part of pons
* neurons in micturition center in lower pons signal parasympathetic neurons
* which stimulate detrusor muscle
* emptying bladder
96
urinary tract infections
* most occur in sexually active young women
* occur in 40% of women
* intercourse drives bacteria from vagina/external genital region/anus through the opening of the urethra and toward the bladder
* STD's can also inflame urinary tract, clogging some ducts
97
Escherichia coli
* a normal bacterium of the lower digestive tract
* produces 80% of all urinary tract infections
98
cystitis
* infection of the bladder
* can spread superiorly to infect ureters and kidneys
* can cause *pyelitis and pyelonephritis*
99
Symptoms/treatment of Urinary tract infections
* burning sensation during micturition
* increased urgency and frequency of micturition
* fever
* cloudy or blood-tinged urine
* when kidneys are involved:
* back pain
* severe headaches
Easily cured by antibiotics
100
Urinary Tract Infections in Men
* usually result from long term catheterization of the penile urethra
* it is difficult to keep indwelling catheters sterile
101
Renal Calculi
* kidney stones
* 12% of men and 5% of women in North America
* calcium, magnesium, or uric acid salts in the urin crystallize and precipitate in the calices or renal pelvis
* most calculi are smaller than 5mm in diameter and can pass through without causing serious problems
102
Pain from Renal Calculi
* Calculi cause pain when they obstruct a ureter, blocking the drainage of urine and increasing intrarenal pressure
* the most severe pain results when the contracting walls of the ureter contact the sharp calculi during peristaltic contractions
* pain radiates from the lateral abdominal region to the anterior abdominal wall then perhaps to the groin
103
Predisposing factors for Renal Calculi
1. oversaturation of calcium ions, uric acid, or oxalate
2. abnormal acidity of urine
3. dehydration
4. blockage of urine flow in urinary tract
5. bacterial infection
104
Treatment for Renal Calculi
* surgical removal
* extracoporeal shock wave therapy
* ultrasonic shock waves from outside body break up calculi
105
Childhood Polycystic Kidney Disease
* a rare, inherited condition in infants
* kidneys contain many urine-filled sacs (cysts)
* Cysts impede the drainage of urine and crush renal tissue
* most children die of kidney failure early in life
106
Autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease
(embryological development of urinary system)
ADPKD
* inherited disorder
* predominantly affects the kidneys
* may affect liver, pancreas, brain, and arterial blood vessels
* 50% of people with this disease will develop end stage kidney disease and require dialysis or kidney transplantation
107
Bladder Cancer
* accounts for 3% of cancer deaths
* 5 times more common in men than women
* typically involves neoplasms of the bladder's lining epithelium
* blood in urine is a common warning sign
* Substances linked to this cancer:
* tars from tobacco smoke
* industrial chemicals
* artificial sweeteners
* lethal if it metastasizes
* surgical removal of bladder and chemotherapy increase survival time significantly
108
Kidney Cancer
* 2% of cancer deaths in USA and rising
* arises from epithelial cells of uriniferous tubules or renal pelvis and calices
* Risk Factors:
* twice as common in men
* obesity
* high blood pressure
* high protein diet
* most tumors are over 3cm in diameter and have metastasized when detected
* prognosis is poor, survival time is 12-18 months
* surgical removal is standard procedure
109
Pronephros
(embryological development of urinary system)
* week for
* the first kidney forms as set of nephrons
* degenerates by week 6
* leaves *pronephric duct*
110
pronephric duct
(embryological development of urinary system)
* forms from pronephros
* primary excretory duct
* sent to cloaca
* used by the kidneys that develop later
111
mesonephros
(embryological development of urinary system)
* second nephron system formed
* "middle kidney"
* claims the pronephric duct
* forms *mesonephric duct*
* degenerates after third kidney (metanephros) develops
112
metanephros
(embryological development of urinary system)
* third kidney
* the definitive kidney
113
horseshoe kidney
* 1 of 600 people
* kidneys fuse into U shape during development
* usually harmless
* can be associated with obstructed drainage and hydronephrosis
114
ectopic kidney
* a kidney that fails to ascend to its normal position
* difficulties draining can arise
* kidney stones
* urinary tract infection
115
Pelvic Kidney
* one of the two kidneys stays in bony pelvis throughout life
* often blocks birth canal
* women may have difficulty giving birth
116
Ureteric Bud
(embryological development of urinary system)
* week 5
* hollow
* grows from mesonephric duct into the urogenital ridge
* induces the mesoderm to form nephrons
* develops into:
* renal pelvis
* calices
* collecting ducts
* ureter
117
renal agenesis
(embryological development of urinary system)
* failure of metanephros to develop
* the absence of kidneys
* unilateral=just one kidney and child can survive
* bilateral=not compatible with life
118
urogenital sinus
(embryological development of urinary system)
* Cloaca divides into two parts:
1. future rectum and anal canal
2. urogenital sinus
* urinary and genital ducts empy into here
* become urinary bladder and urethra
* allantois (extension into umbilical cord) becomes urachus of bladder
Anatomy
flashcards
Decks in class (25)
# Cards
-
(LESSON 1) Chapter 1-Human Body55
-
(LESSON 2) Chapter 3-Embryology64
-
(Lesson 3) Chapter 4-Tissues63
-
(Lesson 4) Chapter 6-Skeletal System54
-
Anatomical Terms40
-
(Lesson 5) Axial Skeleton117
-
(Lesson 6) Appendicular Skeleton-Pectoral Girdle/Upper Limbs56
-
(Lesson 6) Appendicular Skeleton-Pelvic Girdle/Lower Limbs60
-
(Lesson 6) Articulations, Movements, and more joint info34
-
(Lesson 7) Muscular System72
-
(Lesson 8) Upper Muscles71
-
(Lesson 9) Lower Muscles76
-
(Lesson 10) Nervous System74
-
(Lesson 11) Central Nervous System Lab74
-
(LESSON 12) Central and Peripheral Nervous System77
-
(LESSON 14) Circulatory System: Blood and Heart94
-
INCOMPLETE (LESSON 15) Heart and Arteries Lab60
-
(LESSON 16) Blood Vessels69
-
(LESSON 17) Veins, Lymphatics, Fetal Circulation, And Endocrine System Lab20
-
(LESSON 18) Endocrine System54
-
(Lesson 19) Respiratory System112
-
Digestive System229
-
Urinary System118
-
Male Reproductive System100
-
Female Reproductive System140
