1
Q
Types Of Turbulance
A
Jostling movement of the aircraft due to the turbulent atmosphere
- Convective currents
- Obstructions
- Wind shear
- Mountain
- Wake turbulence
- Jet blast
- Clear air
2
Q
Vision
Eyes
A
Most important sense for flight
Cornea-primary focusing element of the eye
Pupil-dark center portion where light enters
Iris-color portion, responsible for the dilating and constricting of the pupil
Lens-behind the iris and performs delicate focusing of light on the retina
Retina-membrane lining the back of the eye that contain photoreceptor cells
-photorecptors send impulse to the brain via optic
Cones-responsible for the color vision and higher light intensity
Rods-unable to discerne colors but very sensitive in low light(night)
Fovea-area of retina with high concentration of cones and no rods
-visual detail and sharp central vision
3
Q
Newtons Third Law Of Motion
A
- for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction
- deflection of airflow downwind has an equal and opposite reaction creating lift on the rotor system
4
Q
Bernoulli’s Principle
A
- as air velocity increases the pressure decreases
- air traveling over the upper surface of the airfoil moves faster
- creates a lower pressure on the upper surface than the lower surface, thus creating lift
5
Q
Preflight Preperation
Local Area Flight
A
familiarize themselves with the airport they are flying to, frequencies, runway length and direction
6
Q
Drugs
A
- wide range of drugs can be taken for medical reasons and can also have a great effect on pilots ability to perform
- it is considered important to consider the drugs being taken as well as the condition they are taken for
Broken down into 3 classifications
- prescription drugs
- over the counter
- illegal drugs
- FARs prohibits pilots from performing crew member duties while using any medication that effects the body in anyway contrary to safety
- when in doubt, consult an AME
Impairments:
- judgement
- memory
- alertness
- coordination
- vision
- ability to make calculations
7
Q
Airway
A
- corridor of controlled airspace from 1,200ft-17,00ft MSL
- width of 4nm either side of center line
8
Q
Find Compass Course
A
TC ± VAR = MC ± DEV = CC
True Course ± Magnetic Deviation = Magnetic Course
Magnetic Course ± Deviation Magnetic
Compass Course
9
Q
Magnetic Variation
A
- depends on position East or West of the Agonic Line
- if West of Agonic Line, variation is Easterly and vice versa
10
Q
VOR
difference between Course + Radial
A
- course is to a heading or location on VOR
- radial are from VOR locations
11
Q
Frequencies Monitored By FSS
A
1) 121.5
2) 122.0 EAFS
3) 123.6 FSS provides local airport advisories
4) 122.2 common en-route simplex frequency
Noncontrol airport
-use multicom frequency of 122.9
12
Q
AD’s
A
Airworthy Directives
- notification of know safety deficiency
- mandatory to address
13
Q
Altitude Induced Decompression Sickness
DCS
A
-condition resulting from exposure to low barometric pressure that causes inert gases normally in the body to come out of solution and form bubbles
Common Symptoms:
-joint pains(bends)
Corrective measures:
- oxygen 100%
- land ASAP
- joint pain, do not move
- seek medical attention from hyperbaric specialist
Scuba diving:
non-controlled = wait 12 hrs before going to 8,000ft MSL
wait 24 hrs before goin ovr 8,000ft MSL
controlled = wait at least 24 hours before a flight
14
Q
Fog Formation
A
Formation:
- air cools to dew point
- moisture is added to the air
Types:
- radiation/ground: ground cools at night, then cools air to dew point
- advection: warm air flows over cold surface, water or land, coastal fog wind
- upslope: moist stable air being cooled as it moves upslope
- precipitation: warm rain/drizzle falls through cool air
- ice: temp below freezing, moisture freezes directly into ice crystals
- steam: cold dry air passes over warm water
dew point: temp at which air must be cooled to reach saturation
15
Q
Temperature Inversion
A
increase in temperature with altitude
16
Q
Conditions Needed For Thunder Storm
A
- lifting force
- unstable air
- high moisture content
Stages:
- Cumulus = upward drafts, water droplets/ice crystals
- Mature = precipitation falls, downdrafts(2500fpm), updrafts(6000fpm), strong winds, sharp drop in temp
- dissipating = downdrafts, tops blow off by wind, rain stops
17
Q
Transponder Inspection?
A
every 24 months
18
Q
Definition Of Night Time
A
time between the end of evening civil twilight and the beginning of morning civil twilight
19
Q
Local Airport Advisory Service
A
FSS will provide local airport advisories for airports without towers usually on 123.6
20
Q
Determine Correct Frequency To Start Flight Plan
A
- ask FSS briefer during the preflight briefing
2. communication section of the AFD
21
Q
Heavy lined blue box around NAVAID?
Frequency printed on top of box?
Thin lined blue box around NAVAID?
A
Standard FSS frequencies are available at all altitudes without interference
An FSS frequency available in addition to 121.5 122.2
No standard FSS frequency available at this station. No voice symbol(underline under frequency)
22
Q
Types Of Weather Briefings
A
1.Standard: most complete of briefings, obtain for pre-flight
2.Abbreviated: shortened version of standard, used in event of delay or for weather updates
3.Outlook: requested when planned departure is 6hrs away
4.Inflite: En-route Flight Advisory System(EFAS)
PIREPS = Pilot Reports
23
Q
Charts For Helicopter VFR Navigation
A
- WAC: World Aeronautical Chart
- Sectionals
- Terminals
- Helicopter route charts
24
Q
Special VFR Weather Minimums
A
- ATC Clearance
- Clear of clouds
- 1 statute mile(unless helicopter)
25
DME
Distance Measuring Equipment
| -supplies distance and ground speed info via VORTAC/TACAN
26
RNAV
Area Navigation
| -can track position, ground speed, info on distance/time
27
ADF
Automatic Direction Finder
-hones in on an NDB
Advantages:
low cost, low maintenance, does not need line of sight
Disadvantages:
susceptible to interference
28
NDB
Non-Directional Radio Beacon
- low to medium frequency
- pilot can hone or track bearings to station
Frequency:
190 to 53K kHz
29
VOR Radial
Line of magnetic bearing coming from the station
Limitations:
- line of site
- altitude of receiving equipment
30
VOR/VORTAC
VOR:
radio stations that provide 360° signals for navigation
VORTAC:
provide DME info as well
Frequencies:
108 to 117095 MHz VOR
31
Factors Effecting Judgement
1. Stress
2. Health
3. Attitude
4. Experience
32
TBO
Time Before Overhaul
-no regulation under part 91 that states overhauls are mandatory
33
SB
Service Bulletin
the document used by manufacturers of aircraft, their engines or their components to communicate details of modifications which can be embodied in aircraft
34
Density Altitude
pressure altitude set for non-standard temperature
35
Wind Shear
Sudden change in velocity or direction of wind
1.low level temperature inversion
2.frontal zone or thunder storm
3.CAT=clea air turbulence
Dangerous because it changes in direction or speed of wind can effect handling of aircraft
36
CRM
Crew Resource Management
-making efficient and effective use of resources
Positive exchange of flight controls
1.make sure someone has control
Checklists
- make sure all procedures are followed
1. read and do - use list all the way
2. do and verify
37
Hazardous Attitudes
| And Antidotes
1. Anti-authority Follow rules
2. Impulsivity Think first, not so fast
3. Invulnerability It could happen to me
4. Macho Taking chances is foolish
5. Resignation I can make a diff., not helpless
38
Pressure Altitude
Altitude when altimeter is set to 29.92
39
Absolute Altitude
Vertical distance of an aircraft from terrain
40
Indicated Altitude
read from altimeter, after set to current altimeter level
41
Chronic Fatigue
- Extends over longer periods of time and often has psychological roots
- Caused by continuous high stress levels
```
Forms in:
weakness
tiredness
palpitations of heart
breathlessness
headaches or irritability
```
- not relieved by proper diet and adequate rest and sleep
- often requires treatment by psychologist
42
Middle Ear Block
- trapped gas(air) expansion accounts for ear pain and sinus pain, as well as a temporary reduction in hearing
- Eustachian tube normally closed, but opens when chewing, yawning, or swallowing
- may not be able to equalize pressure on the ears if pilot has a cold, ear infection, or sore throat
- during a climb, middle ear air pressure may exceed the pressure of the air on the external ear canal, causing the eardrum to bulge outward
- during descent, opposite happens, eardrum will bulge inward
43
Considerations For Night Flight
- keep eyes adapted to darkness
- avoid bright lights before and during flight
- allow eyes to adapt to darkness for 30min prior to flight
- use dim white light or red/green light to preserve night vision
- adjust cockpit lights to minimal brightness
- consume a healthy diet(vitamin A and C)
- maintain general physical health
- avoid CO, smoking, drugs, alcohol, hypoxic conditions
44
Night Blind Spot
- located in the center field of vision
- caused by the concentration of cones at fovea
- reducing visual performance at night in the center of field of vision
- at night the rods must be exposed to the object for clarity
- this can be done by looking 5°-10° off center exposing the rods to the image(off center viewing)
45
Landing Ilusions
Featureless terrain:
cause by an absence in ground features(water, darkened areas, snow) creating an illusion of higher than actual altitude causing a lower than normal approach
Atmospheric:
rain on the windscreen, haze, or g=fog can create an illusion of being further and higher from the LZ causing a lower than normal approach
Ground light:
lights along a straight path(roads, trains, shoreline) can be mistaken for runways. Bright lights can create the illusion of being too low
46
False Horizon
- occurs when the natural horizon is obscured or not apparent
- can be generated by confusing bright stars or city/street lights
47
Autokinesis
- condition caused by staring at a single point of light against a dark background for more than a few seconds
- after a few moments, the light appears to move on its own
- can be prevented by focusing on objects at varying distance and conducting a normal scan pattern
48
Night Myopia
condition in which eye has a greater difficulty seeing in low-illumination areas, even though daytime vision is normal
http://www.skyandtelescope.com/wp-content/uploads/NightMyopia.jpg
49
Empty Field Myopia
- condition that usually occurs when flying above the clouds or in haze providing nothing specific to focus on
- eyes tend to relax and seek a comfortable focal distance(10-30ft)
50
Blind Spot
- area where the optic nerve enters the eyeball, has no rods or cones
- leaves a blind spot in the field of vision which is normally compensated for by the other eye
51
Alcohol
- acts a central nervous system depressant
- quickly absorbed into the body through digestive tract
- takes about 3 hours to rid the body of the alcohol in one drink
- hungover is still considered being under the influence of alcohol and greatly affects the ability to fly
- FAR Part91 declares an 8hr bottle to throttle or a 0.04%>
- 10z of alcohol can equate to an additional 2000ft of physiological altitude
- impaired judgement -reduced reasoning power
- decreased sense of resp -lower attention span
- affects coordination -decrease speed/strength
- constrict visual field -lessen the efficiency of eyes
- diminish memory -increase frequency of errors
- increase vision/hearing impairment
52
Sinus Block
- similar to middle ear, sinuses equalize pressure through small openings that connect sinuses to nasal passages
- congestion from an upper respiratory infection such as a cold can block an opening and slow equalization
- can cause pain in the sinus areas above each eyebrow , in each upper cheek, or even upper teeth to ache
- can be avoided by not flying with upper respiratory infection
53
Spatial Disorientation
- state of temporary confusion resulting from the misleading information being sent to the brain by various sensory organs
- incorrect mental image of what is actually happening
- lack of orientation with regards to the position, attitude, and movement of the aircraft in space
- collectively the three integrated systems provide the info required to understand its physical orientation
54
Spacial Disorientation
| Three Integrated Systems
Visual system:
- sight is the element of position based on what is seen
- primary sense that confirms the systems signals
- without the visual system the vestibular system becomes unreliable
Vestibular system:
- portion of the inner ear which provides info about balance and rotational moments
- signals from this system are sent to the brain to interpret motion
Somatosensory System:
- nerves in the skin, muscle/joints along with the hearing sense, position based on gravity, feeling and sound
- feeling light in the seat in low-g conditions
55
Supplemental Oxygen Requirements
FAR 91.211
-use of oxygen at altitude is necessary because of the potential for loss of consciousness
-certain flights predetermined for which oxygen is
required
Flights between 12,5000 MSL and 14,000 MSL for more than 30 min
-minimum fight crew members must be equipped
Flights above 14,000 MSL
-minimum flight crew members must use supplemental oxygen at all times
Flights above 15,000 MSL
-all occupants must be provided supplemental oxygen
56
Hypoxia
State of oxygen deficiency in the body sufficient enough to impair functions of the brain and other organs
```
Signs:
impaired judgment/reactions
fatigue
euphoria
dizziness/drowsiness
headache
tunnel vision
blue lips
passing out, death
```
```
Treatment:
administer oxygen
descend to lower altitudes
open cabin vents
troubleshoot different kinds of hypoxia
most likely elevation or CO poisoning
make precautionary landing
```
57
Hypoxia Types
Hypoxic:
- insufficient oxygen available to the body
- blocked airway, downing, collapsed/damages lungs
- reduced pressure of oxygen at altitudes
Hypemic:
- blood is unable to bind or carry enough oxygen for the body
- low blood volume, blood disease(anemia), unable to hold oxygen
Stagnant:
- oxygen rich blood is not flowing to the body
- body unable to overpower g forces, arm falls asleep due to decreased blood flow, decreased output from the heart, cold temps
Histoxic:
- bodies tissues or cells unable to use oxygen
- effects of alcohol/drugs
58
Hyperventilation
- excessive breathing or fast respiratory rate
- caused by source of panic or fright
- abnormally low concentration of carbon monoxide
```
Common symptoms:
visual impairments
unconsciousness
dizziness or light headed
tingling sensation
hot or cold sensation
muscle spasm
```
```
Treatment:
restore normal breathing rate
talking, ask questions
breathe into paper bag
often quick to recover from
```
59
Carbon Monoxide Poisoning
(CO) is a colorless and odorless gas produced by interal combustion engines
- CO has a much higher affinity for hemoglobin xompred to oxygen
- CO fills up binding sites
- takes up to 48hrs to leave the body, can lead to death depending on severe
```
Signs/Symptoms:
headache
blurred vision
loss of muscle power
dizziness
drowsiness
```
```
Corrective actions:
turn off heater or defroster
open fresh air vents
use supplemental oxygen
land if possible
```
60
Motion Sickness
- unpleasant sick feeling that is experienced when the brain receives conflicting messages about the state of the body
- typically experienced during initial flights and exaggerated by anxiety and stress associated with flying
```
Symptoms:
general discomfort
nausea
dizziness
paleness
sweating
vomiting
```
```
Alleviate:
open fresh air vents
focus on objects outside
avoid unnecessary head movements
fly smoothly, avoid unnecessary maneuvers
```
61
Anxiety
- psychological and physiological state characterized by emotional, cognitive and behavioral components
- can be cause by stress
- can create feelings of worry, fear, uneasiness, and dread
- potentially severe and could require medical attention
Triggers:
getting lost
accidents, injury, death
emergency situation
Controls:
mentally prepare for flight
try and relax and think rationally
62
Pilot Stress
Stress = bodies response to demands placed on it
- normal response to life situations
- can be positive for performance depending on level
- good cockpit stress management starts with good life stress management
Environmental:
conditions associated with the environment such as temperature and humidity extremes, noise, vibration, and lack of oxygen
Physiological:
physical conditions such as fatigue, lack of physical fitness, sleep loss, missed meals, and illness
Psychological:
social or emotional factors(death, divorce, demotion), may also be related to mental workload such as analyzing a problem, navigating an aircraft, or making decisions
63
Fatigue
-one of the most treacherous hazards to flight safety
Common effects:
- loss of attention and concentration
- impaired coordination
- decreased ability to communicate
- Physical: sleep loss, exercise or physical work
- Mental: stress or prolonged performance of cognitive work
64
Acute Fatigue
-Short term and normal to everyday life
```
Causes:
lack of sleep
physical stress and period of strenuous effort
mild hypoxia
psychological stress and excitement
```
Prevention/Cure:
adequate rest
proper diet
regular sleep
65
UNOS
Undershoot North - lagging
- on an E or W heading turning to the N, we want to undershoot our desired heading
- roll out of turn, the compass card will catch up
Overshoot South - leading
- on an E or W heading turning to the S, we want to overshoot our desired heading
- roll out of turn, the compass card will fall back
66
WE - ANDS
W or E Accelerate North Decelerate South
East Heading:
altitude above equator, North seeking end of magnet may dip slightly toward the earth, CG shifts to the south seeking end of the magnet
West Heading:
Altitude above equator, North seeking end of the magnet may dip slightly toward the earth, CG shifts toward the south seeking end of the magnet
67
Obtaining Weather Briefing
Call Automated Flight Service Station(AFSS)/Flight Service Station(FSS) on 1(800) WX-BRIEF
Others:
1. Telephone Info Brief Service(TIBS)
2. TWEB - (Automated Transcribed Weather Broadcast) Alaska
3. TEL-TWEB - telephone acess to TWEB
4. Private industry sources
5. DUATS
Find #'s in A/FD or the telephone book under government
68
Pressure Altitude
-height above the standard datum plane(SDP) or true altitude corrected for non-standard pressure
Calculation:
(STD Pressure) - (Pressure Atmospheric) = Y
(Y x 1000) = Z
(Z + True Alt) = Pressure Alt
69
Density Altitude
Altitude above MSL at which a given atmospheric density occurs in the standard pressure
High DA:
- refers to thin air and decrease in performance
- high elevation, low atmospheric pressure, high temperature and humidity
Low DA:
- refers to dense air and an increase in performance
- low elevation, high atmospheric pressure, low temperature and humidity
70
PIREP
Pilot Reports
- real time source of info in the upper air regarding hazardous weather
- relayed by radio to the nearest ground station
```
Contain:
location
time
flight level
aircraft type
weather phenomenon
```
71
Radar
- NWS, FAA, DOD have network of radar sites that detect coverage, intensity, and movement of precipitation
- scheduled observations are taken and transmitted hourly/special reports can be requested
- pulse is sent out and signal reflects back
- used to show location, size and shape of the returns, as well as the direction of cell movement
72
ASOS
Automated Surface Observation System: 25nm up to 1kft
- primary automated weather gathering system in U.S.
- larger airports with control towers
- up to minute data obtained by monitoring phone and/or radio
Elements reported:
- wind -cloud/ceiling
- visibility -precipitation identification
- temp/dew point -rainfall accumulation
- altimeter -freezing rain occurrence
- density altimeter -remarks
73
AWOS
Automated Weather Observation System: 25nm up to 1k
- automated weather gathering system providing up to date weather
- Non-towered airports or those without ASOS
Elements Reported;
- wind speed, direction, gusts, temp, dew point, density alt
- visibility
- cloud and ceiling data
- precipitation
- lighting
- Precip occurrence, type + accumulation
- freezing rain, thunderstorms
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