Vineyard establishment

Question 1

What are key influences on site selection when establishing a vineyard?

Answer 1

Style, quality and price of the wines to be made

Question 2

Vineyard land for production of high volume, inexpensive wines:

Answer 2

Flat = mechanisation possible

Fertile land = high yields

Warm dry climate = low disease pressure

Low risk of fungal disease so saves money on spraying

Laws = possibility to irrigate

Question 3

1 - What is required in a vineyard site to produce premium wines in cool climates?

2 - What is required in a vineyard site to produce premium wines in warm climates?

Answer 3

1- Maximum potential to ripen the grapes, aspects that will receive the most sunlight throughout the day.

2 - Producers may favour relatively cool sites, such as those at high altitude or those exposed to cooling sea breezes to bring better balance to the wine.

Question 4

Factors that go into site selection.

Answer 4

1. Price of land within desirable GIs
2. Location, layout and topography of the site
3. Steep slopes unsuitable for mechanisation, labour expensive/hard to attain
4. Source and cost of irrigation
5. Access to the vineyard site/distance from the winery (limit risk of oxidation/ microbial spoilage in transportation)
6. Proximity to towns/cities for labour, supplies

Question 5

What is the definition of terroir from a land point of view?

Answer 5

A sense of place: a wine shows characteristics that relate to the particular place in which the grapes are grown

• climate, soil, aspect, elevation.

Question 6

What is an example of human intervention as regards to terroir?

Answer 6

Where French PDOs stipulate planting density, type of trellising and so on in their regulations

Question 7

How might soil affect terroir? How is this idea contested?

Answer 7

• Wines may claim to be directly influenced by the geological make-up of the soil
• Implies that the vine takes up elements from the soil that affect the taste of the wine.
• Strongly contested by scientific community that says:
  1. photosynthesis primary driver of vine growth
  2. all aroma compounds synthesised in the vine
  3. grape must further transformed during fermentation

Question 8

What are the three main factors taken into consideration when ensuring soil is suitable for growing grapes?

Answer 8

1. Drainage and structure
2. Mineral composition
3. Presence of pests or unwanted plants

Question 9

What are the four main effects of soil structure on grape growing?

Answer 9

1. Root penetration
2. Water drainage
3. Nutrient holding capacity
4. workability

Question 10

What are five common soil practices that may need to occur before vines are planted?

Answer 10

1. Removing large rocks near the surface
2. Subsoiling: breaking down a plough pan
3. Removing old roots that could harbour diseases
4. Applying herbicides to treat weeds
5. Applying manure, compost, fertilizers to increase nutrients

+ adjust soild PH (addition of Lime in extremely low PH soils ((Beaoujolais))

Question 11

What can be done in advance of planting on very steep slopes?

Answer 11

create terracing

Question 12

Name the six characteristics that need to be considered when selecting a grape variety to plant in a certain climate.

Answer 12

1. Time of budburst:
   Early budding varieties are more at risk of spring frost compared to late budding varieties.
2. Duration of annual life-cycle:
   - Early ripening varieties (Chardonnay, Pinot Noir) are best suited to cool climates, ensuring that they reach a suitable level of ripeness before wet, cold weather starts towards late autumn.

• Late ripening varieties (Mourvèdre) are better suited to warm and hot climates. Early ripening varieties in these climates would gain sugar and lose acidity too rapidly, resulting in unbalanced wines.

3. Tolerance of drought:
   Grape varieties that are able to withstand a high level of water stress e.g. Grenache, can be the best options in dry climates such as Southern Rhône, inland Spain or McLaren Vale
4. Resistance to disease:
   - Some grape varieties are less susceptible to fungal diseases, meaning that they require less monitoring and/or treating in damp climates. e.g. Cabernet Sauvignon is less susceptible to grey rot than Merlot, one of the reasons why these two grape varieties make useful blending partners, particularly in rainy Bordeaux.
5. Winter hardiness:
   Some grape varieties (Vidal and Riesling) are relatively tolerant of very cold winter temperatures, making them suitable for the harsh winters experienced Germany and Canada.
6. Vigour:
   If high vigour grape varieties grown on fertile soils with plentiful water, will mean that the vine’s vigour will need managing to avoid excessive shoot growth.

Question 13

Six other factors to take into account when selecting grape varieties to plant.

Answer 13

1. Style of wine
2. Yield:
   High yielding varieties or clones allow production of higher yields which is important when making inexpensive wines.
3. Cost
4. Law:
   In many EU countries, local wine legislation restricts what grape varieties can be planted. e.g. Grand Cru Alsace wines must be Riesling, Gewürztraminer, Pinot Gris or Muscat // Glera in Prosecco.
5. Availability:
   Varieties in high demand and strict quarantine rules must be taken in consideration
6. Market demand

Question 14

Reasons to plant on rootstocks:

Answer 14

Protection from phylloxera

To adapt to the local soil conditions

Question 15

Four factors to consider when selecting rootstocks

Answer 15

1. Pest Tolerance:
   As well as being tolerant to phylloxera some rootstocks are tolerant to root-knot nematodes.
2. Water:
   Some rootstocks are highly tolerant of drought:
   Hybrids of V. rupestris and V. berlandieri, such as 110R or 140R (Ability to root deeply and quickly)

Others are tolerant of water-logged soils:
Based on V. riparia (Ex: Riparia Gloire)

Others are tolerant of higher levels of dissolved salt:
Based on V. berlandieri (Ex: 1103 Paulsen)

3. Soil pH:
   Rootstocks can correct issues caused by soils with very high or very low pH which can effect the availability of some nutrients.

Tolerant to Low PH: 99R and 110R, both hybrids of V. rupestris and V. berlandieri

Toleranty to High PH: Rootstocks based on V. berlandieri (e.g. 41B)

4. Vigour:
   Low vigour rootstocks can advance ripening, which may be useful in cool climates. High vigour rootstocks can be useful if the grape grower wants to boost vine growth and yields in vineyard areas with unfertile soils and dry conditions.

Question 16

Name five characteristics of good soil structure.

Answer 16

1. Good drainage
2. Sufficient water-holding capacity
3. Sufficient oxygen
4. Ability to resist erosion
5. Ability to allow the roots of the vine to penetrate to sufficient depth

Question 17

What four factors lead to good soil health?

Answer 17

1. Good soil structure
2. Abundance of organic matter and humus
3. Presence of living organisms
4. Available nutrients

Question 18

What effect does the presence of organic matter and humus have on soil?

Answer 18

• Decomposing organic matter supplies nutrients
• Humus improves the structure of soil and its water holding capacity

Question 19

What effect does the presence of living organisms have on soil?

Answer 19

• Earthworms and microbes break down organic matter into humus and inorganic nutrients that are accessible to the vine (mineralisation)

Question 20

What can poor soil health lead to?

Answer 20

Problems with the availability and uptake of nutrients and water in the soil leading to poor vine growth and grape ripening.

Question 21

Describe the use of fertilisers.

Answer 21

Two types - Organic and mineral
- They can be added before planting to help the growth of young vines.
- They can be applied to established vineyards to correct nutrient deficiencies.
- can lead to unbalanced vines

Question 22

What are Organic fertilisers and it’s Advantages/disadvantages

Answer 22

Derived from fresh or composted plant or animal materials
(animal manure/slurry , green ,manure)

Advantages:
- Cheap or even free
- Can be good for soil structure and water retention
- Provide nutrition for soil organisms and promote living matter in the soil

Disadvantages:
- Require labour to incorporate them into the soil.
- Can be bulky and so difficult to transport or spread.

Question 23

What are mineral fertilisers and it’s advantages/disadvantages

Answer 23

Fertiliser that is extracted from the ground or chemically manufactured.

Advantages:
- Can be tailored to suit the nutrient requirements of the vineyard
- Inorganic form can be readily available to the vines
- More concentrated, cheaper to transport and easier to distribute

Disadvantages:
- No benefit for soil organisms
- Do not improve soil structure
- Can be expensive

Question 24

What is cultivation?

Answer 24

A method of weed control that involves ploughing the soil to cut or disturb the weeds’ root systems.

Advantages:
- Does not use any chemicals, can be used in organic and biodynamic viticulture. It enables fertiliser and mown cover crops to be incorporated into the soil at the same time as removing weeds.

Disadvantages:
- Repeated cultivation can damage the soil’s structure and ecology due to the breakdown of organic matter and destruction of habitats. It is costly as it requires both skilled labour and machinery. Disturbing the soil buries seeds, thus encouraging the weeds to grow back. It can increase vine vigour too much as there is no competition for water or nutrients.

Question 25

What are the three types of herbicides?

Answer 25

1. Pre-emergence herbicides: sprayed before weeds establish 2. Contact herbicides: kill the green parts of the weed 3. Systemic herbicide: travel through sap killing the whole plant

Question 26

Three advantages of herbicides?

Answer 26

1. They are cheap in terms of labour and machinery requirements. 2. They are highly effective, particularly in the under-row area. 3. They are less damaging to the soil structure than cultivation.

Question 27

Four disadvantages of herbicides.

Answer 27

1. Risks of poisoning to the operator, consumer and environment, and do not encourage vineyard ecosystems. 2. Weeds can become resistant and therefore larger doses or different chemicals need to be used. (Glyphosate in South Africa) 3. They can increase vine vigour too much as there is no competition for water or nutrients (not necessarily a disadvantage in low vigour sites). 4. They are not allowed in organic and biodynamic viticulture.

Question 28

Five main methods of weed control

Answer 28

1. Herbicides 2. Animal Grazing 3. Cover Crops: 4. Cultivation 5. Mulching

Question 29

Advantages and disadvantages of Animal Grazing

Answer 29

- Advantages: no chemicals / animal provide manure / source of animal products - Disadvantages: high training necessary or grazing only out of growing season / animals need csring for / animals susceptible to pesticides

Question 30

What are cover crops? Name six reason why coveer crops might be used:

Answer 30

Plants that are specifically planted, or allowed to grow, that have a beneficial effect on the vineyard. 1. Grown to suppress weeds 2. Planted to improve soil structure 3. Compete with the vine for nutrient and water availability in fertile sites 4. Manage soil erosion 5. Enhance biodiversity 6. Provide a stable surface to drive vineyard machinery on

Question 31

Examples of cover crops

Answer 31

Legumes (beans or clover) Cereals (ryegrass or oats)

Question 32

What is green manure?

Answer 32

Cover crops that are cut in put back into the soil

Question 33

Advantages and disadvantages of cover crops

Answer 33

Advantages: - Does not use any chemicals so commonly used in organic and biodynamic viticulture. - The ability to influence the vigour of the vine by introducing competition for water and nutrients. - The provision of a good surface for machinery, particularly in climates with high annual rainfall. Disadvanatages: - A reduction in vine vigour (through competition for water and nutrients) that can be excessive in poor soils and dry environments. - The difficulty of mowing the under-row area, particularly near the vine trunks, which has implications on time and labour. - The unsuitability for steeply-sloping vineyards, as they are slippery when wet.

Question 34

Define mulching. Advantages / Disadvantages

Answer 34

The spreading of matter (such as straw or bark chips) onto the vineyard soil to suppress the growth of weeds. Advantages: - Chemical free so can be used in organic and biodynamic viticulture. - Reduces evaporation from the soil which is advantageous in dry climates. - Source of nutrients and humus, which promotes biological activity and soil structure. Disadvantages: - bulky and expensive to transport and spread - Effective only if applied in the thick layer so a lot is needed - It can increase vigour if there is no competition for water or nutrients

Question 35

When might irrigation be used?

Answer 35

Area likely to receive very little water through the growing season Areas with very free-draining soils

Question 36

Six steps can be taken in the vineyard to increase the efficiency of water use.

Answer 36

1. Use water-efficient irrigation systems and techniques combined with better monitoring of water take-up by the vines (e.g. dripper systems and regulated deficit irrigation) 2. Use drought-tolerant grape varieties (e.g. Grenache), and rootstocks (e.g. 140R) 3. Reducing evaporation (e.g. by applying a mulch) 4. Reducing competition (e.g. removing weeds) 5. Increasing humus levels in the soil to improve water retention (e.g. by adding organic matter such as compost) 6. Promoting the growth of vine roots deep into the soil (e.g. through cultivation).

Question 37

Advantages and disadvantages of drip irrigation

Answer 37

Advantages: - An economic use of water - Control allows for careful management of water application to specific zones of the vineyard - Can also be used for fertigation - Can be used on slopes Disadvantages: - Installation costs are relatively high, but maintenance costs are moderate - Clean water is required, otherwise the drippers quickly become blocked - Maintenance work is usually required to avoid blockages

Question 38

Define fertigation

Answer 38

When liquid fertiliser is added to the water supply and distributed through drip irrigation

Question 39

4 methods of irrigation

Answer 39

1. Drip irrigation 2. Flood irrigation 3. Channel irrigation 4. Sprinkler irrigation

Question 40

Define regulated deficit irrigation (RDI).

Answer 40

A system of timed and regulated irrigation application to apply mild to moderate stress to the vine at a specified time within the growing season. usually applied between fruit set and veraison to limit shoot growth and favour grape development.

Question 41

Benefits of RDI

Answer 41

- Vine growth and grape development are controlled - Less water is required - Improvement to grape quality