Virtue Ethics

Question 1

who is the key thinker?

Answer 1

Aristotle

Question 2

what type of theory is it? (tele or deont)

Answer 2

It is concerned with the character of the moral agent. It is neither deontological or teleological but agent-centred.

Question 3

who is a virtuous person?

Answer 3

A person who has developed good traits. They are a morally good person.

Question 4

How can you be a morally bad person?

Answer 4

If you have developed negative traits or ‘vices’.

Question 5

what is the difference between deontoloigcal and teleological ethicists and virtue theorists?

Answer 5

D + T = right behaviour comes before right character

VE = right character before right behaviour

Question 6

what is the process of becoming a virtuous person in virtue ethics?

Answer 6

• it is only by becoming a better person that we will do the right thing
• once you have become a moral person, you will do the right thing
• Aristotle believes no one is born virtuous
• to become a virtuous person it is important to practise good virtues in order for them to become HABIT

Question 7

what is eudiamonia in virtue ethics?

Answer 7

• derives from greek words ‘eu’ (good) and ‘daimon’ (spirit within). this concept is translated as ‘happiness’
• this ideal contains an element of deserved or justified happiness
• only way to achieve eudaimonia is to truly deserve it and to have worked tirelessly by developing virtuous character traits and avoiding negative ones

Question 8

what doe Aristotle say about moral virtues? (Quote)

Answer 8

“we are what we repeatedly do…moral excellence comes about as a result of habit” (Aristotle)

Question 9

what are the two types of virtues according to Aristotle?

Answer 9

Moral virtues

Intellectual virtues

Question 10

what are moral virtues?

Answer 10

qualities of character (courage, temperance, etc.) These virtues are connected to the irrational part of our soul. They can only be cultivated through habit.

Question 11

what are intellectual virtues?

Answer 11

qualities of mind (wisdom, understanding, etc.) These virtues are connected to the rational part of our soul. They are cultivated through instruction.

Question 12

what are the 7 parts of Aristotle’s theory?

Answer 12

1) Aristotle begins the nicomachean ethics with the claim that everything has an end
2) discovering the final end is a process that is likely to be directed by politicians
3) there is disagreement about the final end, but most people agree that this final happiness is eudaimonia (happiness)
4) the function argument: the human good is a function of the soul in accord with virtue
5) reasoning well means exercising virtue
6) the doctrine of the mean
7) Aristotle develops the doctrine of the mean with reference to specific moral virtues

Question 13

explain the part of Aristotle’s theory: 1) Aristotle begins the nicomachean ethics with the claim that everything has an end

Answer 13

“every art and every enquiry, and similarly every action as well as choice, is held to aim at some good”

• you can see from the start this is a teleological claim
• each activity has its end. some ends are subordinated to others (military strategy leads to victory in war), suggests that there is some final end to which all activities are directed

Question 14

explain the part of Aristotle’s theory: 2) discovering the final end is a process that is likely to be directed by politicians

Answer 14

• it is politicians that hold the power, decide what sciences ought to exist, what people have to learn
• the politicians Aristotle refers to here will be from the families that he is addressing
• culturally bound, this is adapted to the time of Aristotle

Question 15

explain the part of Aristotle’s theory: 3) there is disagreement about the final end, but most people agree that this final happiness is eudaimonia (happiness)

Answer 15

• most people agree that this final happiness is eudaimonia
• some say that happiness is pleasure, Aristotle rejects that, not the same (rape and murder)
• others say that happiness is receiving political honour, honour can hardly be the final end, it is easily lost
• others say happiness is wealth, but wealth is just a means to the end, is easily lost

Question 16

explain the part of Aristotle’s theory: 4) the function argument: the human good is a function of the soul in accord with virtue

Answer 16

• there is a relation between goodness and function. ‘function’ in greek is Ergon meaning to work, eg. a good knife will fulfil its purpose so will have a good blade, grip, etc.
• equally we need to find the right function for humans, because whatever the human function is, human goodness will be in fulfilling the function
• characteristics of humans
• what function depends on
• telos of human beings

Question 17

what is virtue in a human defined as?

Answer 17

by the natural characteristics of the human soul

Question 18

what is the soul?

Answer 18

the form or blueprint of the body , so souls can be attributed to plants, animals and humans. these form a ‘nested hierarchy’

Question 19

what does function depend on?

Answer 19

it depends on the nature of the soul. So plants, animals and humans fulfil their function by doing the work that is the characteristic of them.

Question 20

what are the characteristics of humans?

Answer 20

it cannot be growth and nutrition (this is plants), it cannot be movement (this is animals) so it can only be the exercise of reason/the rational part of the soul ,which according to Aristotle is unique to humans

Question 21

what does Aristotle confirm of the telos of human beings?

Answer 21

It is focused on the rational soul

Question 22

what does Aristotle define eudaimonia as?

Answer 22

“an activity of the soul in accord with virtue”

Question 23

explain the part of Aristotle’s theory: 5) reasoning well means exercising virtue

Answer 23

• moral virtue according to Aristotle is not to be evaluated over a short time or in isolated situations, but to be assessed over someone’s complete life
• two aspects of the human soul: rational and non-rational soul.
• by nature we are neither good or evil, we do not become just and virtuous by learning rules but by imitating people, we must choose to act virtuously, know what they are doing in any situation

Question 24

what is the difference between the rational and non-rational soul?

Answer 24

• non-rational soul does not mean irrational, refers to emotions and moral virtues (courage, patience)
  These are formed by habit, helped by the rational soul, particularly by the virtue of practical wisdom.
• rational soul has intellectual virtues: theoretical virtues such as maths, physics. it also has practical virtues like understanding and judgement
  These contribute most to the good life because they are under the control of reason.

Question 25

explain the part of Aristotle's theory: 6) how do we perform virtues well?- the doctrine of the mean

Answer 25

- specific virtues lie between two extremes (excess and deficiency). we can become good by finding the 'middle ground' between excess and deficiency - the mean is the median, which is relative to each individual - The mean is not hit or miss, it is defined by a ‘phronimos’- meaning ‘a man of practical wisdom’. The mean will be rationally designed by the phronimos for each individual and not just a universal rule - we may apply phronesis to decide on the right course of action

Question 26

what was Aristotle's quote on excess and deficiency?

Answer 26

"Virtue is also a mean with respect to two vices, the one vice related to excess, the other to deficiency"

Question 27

what is the mean?

Answer 27

the median- specific virtues lie between excess and deficiency, it is relative to the disposition (character traits) of each individual

Question 28

what are the three types of person that the doctrine of the mean produce?

Answer 28

1) The sophron (virtuous person) - naturally lives in the mean without effort 2) The enkrates (continent people)- tempted but has strong enough will power to live in the mean. 3) The akrates- (a person without will or weak-willed person) Cannot live in the mean by overcoming temptation.

Question 29

what is phronesis?

Answer 29

- meaning practical wisdom - greek word for a type of wisdom or intelligence - a type of wisdom relevant to practical things, requiring an ability to discern how to act virtuously - this is necessary as we grow up and move away from rules and demands of figures of authority.

Question 30

What does Thomas McEvilley suggest is the best translation for phronesis?

Answer 30

"mindfulness"

Question 31

what is an example where we use phronesis?

Answer 31

If someone is being mugged in the streets we must use practical wisdom in order to assess the situation. If they have a knife, you risk your life by intervening and could cause death. You must assess the circumstances (whether he is big/small, etc.)

Question 32

explain the part of Aristotle's theory: 7) Aristotle develops the doctrine of the mean with reference to specific moral virtues

Answer 32

``` - a table with all the different means with their excess and deficiency generous: excess= extravagant deficiency= stingy Temperance: excess= self-indulgence deficiency= insensibility - his specific moral virtues include courage, temperance, justice and friendship ```

Question 33

explain the specific moral virtue of justice

Answer 33

- in justice, 'every virtue is summed up' - the moral agent is responsible for acts of injustice which he does involuntarily - It considers the good of others as an end in itself, meaning that it is an altruistic virtue.

Question 34

explain the specific moral virtue of temperance

Answer 34

- An activity in the field of pleasure and pain. Its deficiency is insensibility and its excess is self-indulgence - Aristotle means self-control, and he is talking about the pleasures of the body, specifically those of eating, drinking and sex, will go towards the direction of excess

Question 35

what does Rosalind Hursthouse say about acquiring moral virtues?

Answer 35

- she argued that we can observe that there are some young mathematical geniuses, however it is rare to hear of a young moral genius. Virtuous people are more common amongst adults because virtues are to be acquired through habit and aspiring to other virtuous people.

Question 36

What are St Ambrose's cardinal virtues?

Answer 36

They originated with plato 1) Courage 2) Justice 3) Temperance 4) Wisdom

Question 37

What are the three theological virtues from St Paul?

Answer 37

1) Faith 2) Hope 3) Love (charity)

Question 38

what does the modern theologian James F Keenan suggest are the main virtues?

Answer 38

1) Justice - Justice requires us to treat all human beings equally and impartially 2) Fidelity - Fidelity requires that we treat people closer to us with special care 3) Self-care - We each have a unique responsibility to care for ourselves, affectively, mentally, physically and spiritually 4) Prudence - The prudent person must always consider justice, fidelity and self-care - The prudent person must always look for opportunities to acquire more of the other three virtues

Question 39

give an example of the use of the mean of bravery

Answer 39

if you witness a fight where there is a knife involved it would be cowardly to not do anything and to just leave it to happen but it would be rash if you got yourself involved knowing that there is a weapon and that they are bigger than you. Bravery is assessing the situation and here it would be to phone the police of what is happening.

Question 40

strengths of virtue ethics

Answer 40

1) happiness- VE brings happiness for individuals and society. eudaimonia defined as "happiness", this is our final end. VE allows us to do this through behaving towards the mean. Ben Franklin thought that the way to achieve the greater good was virtue 2) integrity- consequentialism demands an unacceptable compromise when we have to do bad actions to get good consequences, whilst absolutism requires us to hold to principles even when this causes harm. Virtue Ethics allows us to maintain our integrity, be true to our values. “we are what we repeatedly do…moral excellence comes about as a result of habit” We become the person we want to be, the better person. 3) flexible- the golden mean allows for extreme courage in some situations and restraint in others. Each virtue to the right degree depending on the circumstances. Example of a fight with a knife involved. not like absolutism, more flexibility what we do. situations. Use phronesis 4) holistic- the theory covers all aspects of personality, including practical skills, intelligence and qualities of character. It considers the full person. This incorporates the different qualities someone has, NML doesn’t. Moral and Intellectual virtues

Question 41

weaknesses of virtue ethics

Answer 41

1) religious objections- Virtue Ethics is criticised for relying too much on the individual, and ignoring the authority of biblical rules and church teaching. VE is vague, the bible gives clear instruction. Using phronesis may be difficult, the bible is written by God and so should be the main thing we look towards for help. 2) elitist- Aristotle’s virtues fit his life perfectly, ideal for an Athenian gentleman. They are very privileged and masculine, and don’t encourage charity. People we look up to: Ghandi, Mother Theresa, etc. were selfless individuals who made sacrifices for others. Aristotle’s high-minded virtues seem like self-serving snobbery, not human excellence. It is outdated and doesn’t fit for society. Paternalistic hierarchy of relationships is chauvinistic in which “man rules by merit but hands over to his wife such duties as are best suited to her” , sexist 3) relativist- values vary from one culture to another. When two belief systems conflict, there is no way to decide which set of virtues are right. Difficult to dictate what is right and wrong with the different cultures. Inequality. It ignores cultural relativism. What is virtuous in one society may be a comparative vice in another. Eg. Aristotle’s Athens virtues: male dominance, courage Secular Europe: tolerance, individualism Compare his, st pauls and James Keenan 4) anthropocentric- just like Natural Law, humans are the top of the hierarchy, and animals have instrumental value. Animal Rights supporters would disagree. Aristotle’s system is focused on the good for humans. Humans are unique in having rationality, whereas the animal soul is restricted to basic knowledge and sense-perception. This is wrong. The least intelligent humans are considerably less intelligent as the most intelligent animals. If the animal kingdom is not included in the system, then the environment as a whole is likely to be ignored. Aquinas’ NML influenced by Aristotle here, animals undervaluing animals for over 2000 years.

Question 42

what is aretaic ethics?

Answer 42

another name for virtue ethics. from the greek word arête, which simply means any kind of excellence or virtue

Question 43

what is the golden mean?

Answer 43

the balance of extremes of virtues and vices. a balance between excess and deficiency

Question 44

what are vicious and incontinent people?

Answer 44

vicious people- do not attempt to be virtuous | incontinent people- face moral conflict but usually choose a vice