1
Q
?Total utility is best defined by which of the following??
A
The total satisfaction received from consuming a particular amount of a product
2
Q
Accounting profit
A
- Total revenue less explicit costs
2. Accounting profit = TR ? Explicit costs
3
Q
All Costs of Production
A
- Total Cost:
- Average fixed cost:
- Average variable cost
- Average total cost:
Marginal cost
4
Q
Average product (AP):
A
Total product / Units of Labor
5
Q
Benefits
A
The extra satisfaction from the output of more public goods.
6
Q
Change in Demand
A
- Demand will change if there is a change in the determinants of demand, other things equal.
- Result:
- The demand curve will shift to the right if demand increases.
- The demand curve will shift to the left if demand decreases.
7
Q
Change in Supply
A
- Supply will change if there is a change in the determinants of supply, other things equal.
- Result:
- The supply curve will shift to the right if supply increases.
- The supply curve will shift to the left if supply decreases.
8
Q
Collusive Pricing (Cartel) (Obstacles to Collusion)
A
- Cheating
- Number of firms
- Potential entry
- Demand and cost differences
- Recession
- Legal obstacles (e.g. Antitrust law)
9
Q
Complementary goods:
A
A decline in the price of one product increases the demand for another good.
10
Q
Consumer Behavior (Utility)
A
- Satisfaction or pleasure
- Subjective
- Difficult to quantify
- Different from usefulness
- Two Types: Total Utility and Marginal Utility
11
Q
Consumer expectations
A
The expectation of a lower future price of housing will reduce current demand.
12
Q
Consumer Surplus
A
- The difference between what a consumer is willing to pay for a good and what the consumer actually pays
- The extra benefit from paying less than the maximum price
- The area under the demand curve and above the price
13
Q
Cost of Production: Applications for Successful Start Up Firms
A
- Google, Microsoft and Apple have been very successful.
- The rapid growth of these firms are attributed to labor specialization, management specialization and more importantly economies of scale.
14
Q
Cost-Benefit Analysis
A
- Cost-benefit analysis helps the government make decisions on which project to pursue.
- YES if:
a. Total benefit > Total cost; and
b. MB > MC
15
Q
Costs
A
- The public sector vs. the private sector
- Resources diverted from private good production.
- The opportunity cost of producing more public goods
16
Q
Costs for Production: Long Run
A
- Adjustable plant size and adjustable number of plants
2. Firms can enter and exit.
17
Q
Costs of Production: Short Run
A
- Fixed plant size, land and machinery and fixed number of plants
- Firms can vary their output by changing resources used.
18
Q
Costs of Production: Summary
A
- Marginal cost eventually rises with the quantity of output.
- The average-total-cost curve is U-shaped.
- The marginal-cost curve crosses the average-total-cost curve at the minimum of average total cost.
- Many costs are fixed in the short run but variable in the long run.
- Economies of scale, diseconomies of scale and constant returns to scale refer to properties of long-run average total cost with respect to the quantity of output of the firms.
19
Q
Costs of Producton: Average fixed cost (AFC):
A
AFC = TFC/Q
20
Q
Costs of Producton: Average total cost (ATC)
A
ATC = TC/Q
= TFC/Q + TVC/Q
ATC = AFC+AVC
21
Q
Costs of Producton: Average variable cost (AVC)
A
AVC = TVC/Q
22
Q
Costs of Producton: Marginal cost (MC)
A
MC = change in TC/change in Q
23
Q
Costs of Producton: Total Cost (TC):
A
TC = TFC + TVC
24
Q
Degree of Concentration
A
- Four Firm Concentration Ratio
Herfindahl Index
25
Demand curve
Consumers? full willingness to pay
26
Demand, Supply and Market Summary
1. Quantity demanded, demand and the law of demand
2. Demand determinants
3. Individual demand vs. market demand
4. Quantity supplied, supply and the law of supply
5. Supply determinants
6. Individual supply vs. market supply
7. Demand, supply & market equilibrium
8. Shortage and surplus
9. Changes in demand and supply, and shifts in demand and supply
10. Government-set prices; namely price ceilings and price floors
27
Demand:
The demand schedule and demand curve show the relationship between the price of a product and the quantity demanded.
28
Demand-Side Failures & Public Goods
1. For a public good, its demand curve might reflect none of its consumers? willingness to pay.
2. Demand-side market failures
Free-rider problem:
29
Demand-side market failures
1. For example, education: It is not possible for Tom to make the people who get the spill-over benefit from his education pay him.
2. Underproduction
30
Determinants of Demand
1. Tastes (Preferences)
2. Income
3. Price of related goods
4. Consumer Expectations
Number of Buyers
31
Determinants of Supply
1. Input prices (resource prices) Higher input prices imply higher costs and lower supply.
2. Technology
3. Taxes and subsidies
4. Prices of other goods
5. Producer expectations
6. Number of sellers
32
Dilemma of Regulation: What would you do if you were the government?
1. Allow the monopolist to charge customers at P = ATC; or
2. Subsidize the losses; or
3. Allow the monopolist to use price discrimination in order to cover ATC.
33
Direct Control
Laws to limit an activity or set emission standards.
34
Economic Costs
1. Economic costs or opportunity costs
| 2. Economic costs = Explicit costs + Implicit costs
35
Economic Effects of Monopoly
1. Price, output and efficiency
2. Income transfer
Cost Complications
36
Economic Effects of Monopoly: Cost Complications
1. Economies of Scale
2. X-Inefficiency
3. Rent Seeking Behavior
Technological Advance
37
Economic Effects of Monopoly: Income Transfer
The owner of the monopolistic corporation gains at the expense of consumers.
38
Economic or pure profit
1. Total revenue less economic costs
2. Economic profit = TR ? Economic costs
3. Economic profit = TR ? Explicit costs ? Implicit costs
39
Economic Profit Formula
(P ? ATC) x Q =
40
Economies of Scale
1. How? Long-run ATC decreases as the size of the firm increases.
2. E.g. Natural monopoly
41
Economies of Scale
1. You tend to use a product that everybody else does.
2. Simultaneous consumption
3. Network effects
42
Efficient allocation
1. Productive efficiency (Minimized cost)
| 2. Allocative efficiency (MB = MC)
43
Excludability
1. A person can consume a product if (s)he is willing and able to pay.
those unable and unwilling to pay do not have access to the benefits of the product.
44
Explanations for the Law of Demand
1. Diminishing marginal utility
2. Income Effect
Substitution Effect
45
Explanations for the Law of Supply
1. Revenue Implications
| Marginal Cost
46
Explicit Costs
Monetary payments
47
Externalities
1. Negative externality
| 2. Positive externality
48
Externalities
A cost or benefit of producing a product is passed onto someone else or spills over to a third party.
49
Four-firm concentration ratio:
1. Four-firm concentration ratio = Output of four largest firms/Total output
2. Four-firm concentration ratio = Sales of four largest firms/Total sales
3. Very low ratio ? pure competition
4. Less than 40% ? monopolistic competition
5. 40% or more ? oligopolistic competition
50
Free-rider problem:
People can use public goods without paying for them. In other words consumers can enjoy benefits without paying.
51
Game Theory & Oligopoly Strategic Behavior
1. Strategic behavior:
2. Mutual interdependence (Pricing policy)
3. Collusion (Enhances profit)
4. Incentive to cheat
Prisoner?s dilemma
52
Government Set Prices: Ceilings on Gasoline
i. Rationing problem
ii. Ability to pay, first-come first-served or favoritism.
Black markets
53
Government Set Prices: Price Floor on Wheat
1. Resource allocation is done inefficiently.
2. Government purchases all surplus, causing tax burden to taxpayers.
3. Prevention of wheat import can bring about retaliation.
54
Government Set Prices: Rent Control
a. Demand side: (A low rent increases demand for housing.)
b. Supply side: (A low rent makes rental units less attractive to build.)
c. In the short run, landlords convert rental units to condominiums.
d. In the long run, landlords sell rental units to invest in higher return assets.
55
Government Set Prices: Price ceiling:
A price ceiling is a maximum legal price.
56
Government-Set Prices: Price Floor
A price floor is a minimum legal price. (e.g. minimum wage)
57
Herfindahl Index
HHI = (%S1)2 + (%S2)2 + (%S3)2 +?+ (%Sn)2
HHI = Sum of the squared market shares of all firms
? HHI = (100)2 = 10,000 ? What does this mean?
? HHI = (30)2 + (70)2 = 5,800
58
If a rational consumer is in equilibrium, then:?
The marginal utility per last dollar spent is the same for all goods consumed
59
Implicit Costs
1. Income you would have earned
2. Value of next best use
3. Self-owned resources
4. Self-employed resources
60
Income
1. Normal goods: As income rises, the demand for a normal good will go up.
2. Inferior goods: As income rises, the demand for an inferior good will go down.
61
Indifference Curve Analysis
1. The consumer?s preferences are represented by consumer?s indifference curves.
The slope of an indifference curve at any point is the consumer?s marginal rate of substitution.
62
Individual Supply & Market Supply
Like market demand, market supply is the sum of all individual supplies for all sellers of a product at a given price.
63
Law of demand:
1. Other things equal, as price falls the quantity demanded rises.
2. Other things equal, as price rises the quantity demanded falls.
64
Law of Demand: Income effect:
If the price goes down, purchasing power increases, enabling consumers to buy more
65
Law of Demand: Substitution effect:
1. If the price goes down, consumers will buy more of that product and fewer of other products.
2. They substitute a cheaper good for a more expensive good.
66
Law of Demand: Diminishing marginal utility
Additional units yield less and less marginal utility.
67
Law of diminishing marginal utility
1. The more of a good consumers obtain, the less they want.
2. Each additional unit of a good provides less utility.
3. The law explains downward sloping demand. Why?
68
Law of Diminishing Returns
1. Add a variable resource to a fixed resource
2. Output will increase by a smaller and smaller amount
3. Rationale: If not, the world must have plenty of goods.
4. Marginal product will decline
5. Rationale: Each worker has less capital to work with.
69
Law of supply:
1. Other things equal, as price increases the quantity supplied increases.
2. Other things equal, as price decreases the quantity supplied decreases.
70
Legal Barriers to Entry
1. How? Grants exclusive right to innovators.
| 2. E.g. Patents & licenses
71
Long Run Production Cost
1. Economies of Scale
a. Labor specialization
i. Workers are more efficient if they work on one task.
b. Managerial specialization
i. Small firms might have to make their marketing expert work outside his area of expertise.
c. Efficient capital
i. Efficient capital might be too expensive for small firms.
2. Diseconomies of Scale
a. Large firms often have problems of communication and cooperation
Constant Returns to Scale
72
Marginal Cost
Since the cost of an additional unit of production increases, firms will not produce more unless they receive a higher price.
73
Marginal product (MP):
Change in total product / Change in Labor
74
Marginal Product vs. Average Product
1. They have the same trend, but:
2. MP > AP, AP?
3. MP = AP, AP is at a maximum.
4. MP < AP, AP?
5. Note: MP < AP, adding MP will reduce AP. Why?
75
Marginal utility
1. Extra satisfaction from an additional unit.
| 2. We obtain less marginal utility from additional units of a good, so we will buy more only if that good is cheaper.
76
Market efficiency
1. Demand & consumers? willingness to pay
| No underproduction or overproduction
77
Market Equilibrium
1. Equilibrium price and quantity
2. Efficient allocation
3. Surplus and shortage
4. The rationing function of price
78
Market Failures
The market fails to produce the right amount of product.
79
Market for externality rights: Carbon Dioxide Emissions
1. Imposes a carbon tax.
a. Assigns property rights to pollute.
b. Sets a cap for the total amount of emissions.
c. Allows firms to trade the externality rights.
2. Raises cost of polluting.
3. Easy to enforce
80
Markets
1. Bring buyers and sellers together.
2. Buyers demand goods and sellers supply goods.
3. Their interaction determines the price.
4. Assumptions: Standardized good and Competitive market
81
Misconceptions
1. Not the highest price
2. Total, not unit, profit (Maximize (TR ? TC) not (P ? ATC))
3. Possibility of losses (If preference changes reduce demand or increase costs. )
82
Monopolistic Competition
1. Large number of sellers
2. Small market shares
3. Independent actions
4. Differentiated Products
5. Brand names and packaging
6. Some control over price
7. Easy entry and exit
8. Need for advertising: Non-price Competition
83
Monopolistic Competition & Efficiency
1. Pure competition
P = min ATC
P = MC
```
2. Monopolistic competition
? P1 > min ATC
? P1 > MC
? Underproduce
? Q1 < QPC ? Excess capacity
```
84
Monopoly Demand
1. Face downward-sloping demand (Entire market demand)
2. Marginal revenue < price (To increase sales, must lower price)
3. A price maker (Choose P,Q combination)
85
Monopoly is inefficient
1. Charge P>MC
2. Qm < Qc
3. Deadweight loss (abc)
86
Negative externality
1. Supply-side failures
| 2. Over-allocated resources
87
Noncollusive Oligopoly Two Strategies
1. Match price changes
2. Ignore price changes
3. Both lead to a kinked-demand curve.
88
Noncollusive Oligopoly: Ignore price changes
1. If A increases the price and its competitors do not, A will lose a lot of customers.
Result: DA is elastic
89
Noncollusive Oligopoly: Match price changes:
1. If A cuts the price and its competitors match the price, A will not gain that much. Result?
2. D for product A is inelastic.
90
Nonexcludability
1. Everyone can use them anytime they want.
91
Nonrivalry
1. When a person consumes or uses a public good, other people can use it as well.
92
Normal profit
Equal to implicit costs
93
Oligopoly: Kinked-Demand Curve: Model Criticisms
1. How does price get to P0?
2. Price flexibility
i. Prices are not that rigid at P0 .
ii. E.g. OPEC raised price of oil in the 1970s causing changes in price and inflation.
3. Price wars
94
Ownership or control of essential resources:
For example
1. De Beers owns 55% of the world supply of diamonds.
2. Canadian Nickel company owns 90% of the world?s nickel reserves.
95
Policy Options
1. Anti-Trust Laws
2. Natural Monopoly
Ignore
96
Policy Options: Anti-Trust Laws
1. Divide the firm if it engages in anticompetitive actions.
| 2. E.g. Microsoft, ?Ma Bell?
97
Policy Options: Ignore
1. Unstable in long run
| e. g. Emergence of new technology.
98
Policy Options: Natural Monopoly
1. Regulate price
| 2. E.g. Utilities.
99
Pollution
1. Since the firm does not include the negative externality into its costs, it produces at MarketQ.
2. At Market Q,
i. Total cost (firm?s cost + externality cost) = b
ii. Total benefit only = c
iii. Total cost > total benefit
100
Pollution & Tax
1. A tax will shift S to Ssociety and decrease output from MarketQ to OptimalQ.
2. Q Optimal is produced.
3. The efficiency loss is eliminated.
101
Positive Externalities & Government Intervention (Subsidies)
1. Look at the government?s subsidies to buyers.
2. The demand curve will shift from D to Dsociety. As a result:
3. Q optimal is produced.
4. The efficiency loss is eliminated.
102
Positive externality
1. Demand-side failures
| 2. Under-allocated resources
103
Price Discrimination
1. Three forms:
a. Charge different customers different prices.
b. Charge each customer their maximum willingness to pay.
c. Charge one price for first unit and a lower price for subsequent units.
2. Examples:
a. Airfares
b. Electric utilities
c. Theaters & restaurants
3. Conditions:
a. Monopoly power
b. Market segregation
c. No resale
104
Price Leadership Model
The dominant firm will initiate price changes and all other firms will follow.
105
Price Leadership Model (Tactics)
1. Infrequent price changes
2. Communications by, e.g., press releases
3. Limit pricing to block entry
4. Breakdowns in price leadership:
i. Price wars (e.g. McDonalds and Burger King)
106
Price of related goods
1. Substitute goods:
2. Complementary goods:
3. Unrelated goods:
107
Price, output and efficiency
1. Pure competition is efficient
| Monopoly is inefficient
108
Prices of other goods
1. Substitution in production
2. As the price of pants goes up, the supply of shirts will go down.
3. As the price of footballs falls, the supply of basketballs will increase.
109
Pricing and other strategic barriers to entry:
For example: Microsoft tied their PC operating system to internet explorer.
110
Prisoners dilemma
Shows that self-interest can prevent people from maintaining cooperation, even when cooperation is in their mutual self-interest.
111
Private Goods
1. Goods that have rivalry and excludability, private firms can produce and sell the goods for a profit.
2. Come in units small enough to be afforded by individual buyers.
Examples: Offered for sale in the market by producers
112
Producer Surplus
1. The difference between the actual price a producer receives and the minimum price they would accept
2. The extra benefit from receiving a higher price than the acceptance price.
3. The area above the supply curve and under the price.
113
Profit
1. Accounting Profit
2. Economic Profit
Normal Profit
114
Profit Maximization (Two Approaches)
1. Total revenue and total cost approach (Produce where TR-TC is greatest.)
2. Marginal revenue and marginal cost approach. (Produce where MR=MC.)
115
Profit Maximization in the Long Run
Assumptions:
1. Free entry and exit (Zero economic profit in the long run)
2. Identical costs: (Same effect on each firm)
3. Constant-cost industry (The entry and exit of new firms do not affect input prices.)
116
Public goods
Demand-side failures
117
Public Goods
1. Nonexcludability
2. Nonrivalry
1. Provided by the government.
2. Offered for free
3. Common examples: National defense, Public fireworks, Lighthouses, Clean air
4. For public goods, we do not add quantities demanded at each price as we do when we find the market demand .
5. To find the demand for a public good we add the total price each individual is willing to pay for the unit rather than summing the quantities at each price.
118
Pure competition is efficient
1. Productive efficiency:
2. P = min ATC
3. Allocative efficiency:
4. P = MC
5. So, maximizes CS+PS
119
Pure Competition-Summary
1. The four basic market models are pure competition, monopolistic competition, oligopolistic competition and pure monopoly.
2. A large number of competitive firms sell homogeneous products, therefore they are price takers.
3. To maximize profit, a firm chooses the quantity of output such that marginal cost equals marginal revenue.
4. The price of a good in a competitive market is equal to average revenue which is equal to marginal revenue.
5. In the short-run, a firm will choose to shut down temporarily if the price of its product is less than its average variable cost.
6. With free entry and exit all competitive firms produce at the efficient scale in the long run and earn zero economic profits.
7. The firm?s marginal cost curve is its supply curve.
8. The long-run supply curve of firms can be horizontal, upward sloping or downward sloping.
9. In the long run pure competition has productive efficiency and allocative efficiency.
120
Pure Monopoly Summary
1. A monopolist is a price maker that sells a unique product. It can use nonprice competition to block entry.
2. Its demand curve is downward sloping and lies above the marginal revenue curve.
3. Profit-maximizing for a monopolist is where MR = MC.
4. A monopolist?s profit-maximizing level of output is below the competitive level.
5. The economic effects of monopoly are inefficiency in output and price, income transfer, and cost complications.
6. Price discrimination occurs when a monopolist charges different prices in different markets.
7. Government regulation is associated with natural monopolies.
121
Pure Monopoly: Barriers to Entry
1. Economies of Scale
2. Legal Barriers to Entry
3. Ownership or control of essential resources:
4. Pricing and other strategic barriers to entry:
122
Quantity demanded
The amount a consumer is willing and able to purchase at a given price.
123
Quantity supplied:
The amount a seller is willing and able to sell at a given price.
124
Quasi-Public Goods
1. Could be provided by the private sector through the market system.
2. Exclusion
3. Positive externalities
4. Examples: Education, streets, libraries, highways, police and fire protection, museums, preventative medicine, post offices and parks
125
Regulated Monopoly & Natural Monopoly: With Regulation
1. Socially optimum price:
2. P = MC??????????Socially optimum price
3. From the graph, Pr = MC so it is social optimum.
4. But (Pr = MC) < ATC, the monopolist runs losses.
126
Regulated Monopoly & Natural Monopoly: Fair Return Price
1. P = ATC??????????Fair return price
2. From the graph, Pf = ATC; Qf < Qr (social optimum)
3. So it is not the social optimum.
127
Regulated Monopoly & Natural Monopoly: Without Regulation
The monopolist will charge Pm and produce only Qm.
128
Rent Seeking Behavior
1. The monopolist tries to use all tactics to protect its position.
2. This leads to an increase in rent-seeking expenditures and X-inefficiency.
129
Revenue Implications
The higher the price the greater the revenue and the greater the incentive for a producer to increase the quantity supplied.
130
Rivalry:
When a person buys and consumes a product, the product will not be available for others
131
Short Run Profit Maximization: Economic Loss: The firm suffers a loss, it does not produces, if?
1. No, the firm will shut down if the revenue is less than the variable cost of production.
2. TR < VC
3. TR/Q < VC/Q
4. P < AVC
5. The firm will shut down and incur only fixed cost.
132
Short Run Profit Maximization: Economic Loss: The firm suffers a loss, it still produces, if?
1. Yes if the revenue covers the variable cost or the price exceeds the average variable cost.
2. TR > VC
3. TR/Q > VC/Q
4. P > AVC
5. The firm will still produce because its loss is less than fixed cost.
133
Short Run: Total Costs
Fixed costs plus variable costs
134
Short Run: Fixed Costs
Do not vary with output
135
Short Run: Variable Sosts
Materials and most labor costs
136
Short-Run Production Costs
1. Fixed Costs
2. Variable Costs
Total costs
137
Short-Run Profits, Short-Run Losses & Long-Run Equilibrium
1. Firm?s demand curve: Highly elastic
2. Short run profit or loss: Produce where MR=MC.
3. Long run normal profit (0 economic profit): Entry and exit
138
Substitute goods:
A decline in the price of one product decreases the demand for another product
139
Substitution in production
1. As the price of pants goes up, the supply of shirts will go down.
2. As the price of footballs falls, the supply of basketballs will increase.
140
Supply
1. Quantity supplied
2. Supply:
Law of supply:
141
Supply curve
All the costs of production
142
Supply:
The supply schedule and supply curve show the relationship between the price of a product and the quantity supplied.
143
Supply-Side Failures & Negative Externalities
1. Supply side market failures
2. External costs
3. A third party
4. (e.g. Pollution
5. The firm does not pay the full cost of producing its output.
6. In the graph: External costs are not internalized and Overproduction
144
Taxes and subsidies
1. Higher taxes imply higher costs and lower supply.
| 2. What about subsidies?
145
Technological Advance
1. More likely with monopoly?
146
The Budget Line
1. A consumer?s budget constraint shows the combinations of two goods that person can purchase given her income and the prices of the goods.
2. The slope of the budget line is equal to the relative price of the two goods (PB/PA).
147
The Demand and Supply conditions lead to:
1. Benefits are at least equal to costs (if not greater).
| 2. Maximized producer surplus and consumer surplus
148
The downward slope of the demand curve for a product is the result of:?
Diminishing marginal utility
149
The law of diminishing marginal utility implies that as a person consumes more and more of a given commodity:?
Marginal utility will eventually decline
150
The Reallocation Process
The government:
1. Collects taxes.
2. Provides public goods and quasi-public goods.
151
Theory of Consumer Behavior
1. Rational behavior: (?Get the most for the money?)
2. Preferences (Know their marginal utility)
3. Budget constraint (Limit income)
4. Prices (Choose the most satisfying mix of goods.)
152
Three Oligopoly Models
1. Noncollusive oligopoly (kinked-demand curve)
2. Collusive pricing (cartel)
3. Price leadership
153
Total product (TP):
Total output produced
154
Total Product vs. Marginal Product
1. TP increases at an increasing rate ? MP is rising.
2. TP increases at a diminishing rate ? MP is falling but remains positive.
3. TP is at a maximum ? MP equals zero.
4. TP declines ? MP is negative.
155
Total utility
Total satisfaction from a specific quantity
156
Two causes of market failure
1. Public goods
| 2. Externalities
157
Two types of government interventions:
1. Direct Control
2. Specific Taxes
3. Results:
4. Both interventions will shift the firm?s supply curve from S to Ssociety. As a result:
5. The firm produces at Qoptimal.
6. The efficiency loss is eliminated.
158
Unrelated goods:
Independent goods such as shoes and oranges.
159
Utility Summary
1. Marginal utility refers to the extra satisfaction a consumer gets from one additional unit while total utility refers to the total satisfaction from a specific quantity.
2. Marginal utility is subject to the law of diminishing marginal utility.
3. The utility-maximizing rule states that the consumer will allocate income in such a way that MU of product A/price of A= MU of product B/price of B = etc.
4. The theory of consumer choice explains why demand curves can slope upward.
5. When the price of a good falls, an income effect and a substitution will impact consumer?s choices.
6. The marginal rate of substitution equals the relative price of two goods where an indifference curve is tangent to the budget line.
160
Which best expresses the law of diminishing marginal utility??
The more consumption of a product, the smaller is the marginal utility from consuming an additional unit
161
Which of the following defines marginal utility??
The additional satisfaction received from consuming one more unit of a product
162
Why three Oligopoly models?
1. Diversity of oligopolies
| 2. Complications of interdependence
163
X-Inefficiency
1. Due to entry barriers, the monopolist is sheltered from competition.
2. Lowest ATC not achieved
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