Week 1

Question 1

What are ‘scientific methods’?

Answer 1

Methods of science that provide a set of techniques and approaches for scientists to use to systematically accumulate knowledge.
-help update beliefs with new evidence

eg empirical method and hypothetico-deductive method

Question 2

What is the ‘empirical method’ and what does it lead to? (type of scientific method)

Answer 2

= A procedure that only measures what can be directly observed.
- helps us gather data through direct experience, and not on preconceptions, to organize into trends or relationships.
LEADS US TO MAKE INDUCTIVE REFERENCES (to predict what will happen by using past experiences)
empirical -> through observation/experience (NOT intuition)

Question 3

What is the Hypothetico-deductive method (type of scientific method)

Answer 3

= Allows us to develop theories which are evaluated by generating and testing hypotheses.

1) Empirical observation -> gather and organize data from observations to find general trends and relationships

2) Develop a theory -> a proposed explanation, derived from observation

3) Deductively infer a hypothesis (logical reasoning)

4) Test hypothesis to investigate if results challenge or support theory

5) RESULTS
a) hypothesis challenges theory -> modify theory and create new hypothesis
b) hypothesis supports theory -> successful replication

Every Day Dogs Try Running

Question 4

deductive inference vs inductive inference

Answer 4

DEDUCTIVE : an inference in which, if the premises of the argument are true, the conclusion is logically certain.
eg
P1: All frogs are green
Observation: This frog is red
Conc: Not all frogs are green.

INDUCTIVE: an inference from the observed to the unobserved (Allows us to predict what will happen in the future by drawing conclusions on what we have already observed to situations we are yet to observe.
eg my belief that bread will turn to toast in a toaster is an inductive reference based on the empirical method of my direct prior experiences.)
OR
eg
“I’ve only ever seen green frogs, so all frogs must therefore be green”

Question 5

hypothesis

Answer 5

= a precise, testable prediction of what you expect to find which logically follows from the theory
- THEREFORE, a hypothesis is logically justified if we assume our theory is true.

Question 6

Replication

Answer 6

Repeating a completed study
Repeated observations of the same results under the same or similar study conditions

Question 7

Karl Popper’s Falsification

Answer 7

• aimed to demarcate science vs pseudoscience via ‘falsification’
• Popper helped formalise the HD method using reasoned arguments.
• Smt is scientific if it is falsifiable (still not meaningless tho)
  THEREFORE, scientists should be looking to falsify>verify theories.

falsifiability : theories must be proposed in terms that make it possible to refute them.

Question 8

Criticisms of Popper’s Falsification

Answer 8

1) Self-defeating
- falsification itself is not falsifiable
R-> it’s a principle, not a scientific theory

2) Science is multifaceted
- falsification might be a good end goal but science is complex and has many aspects and goals.
- might be a good start to use falsification but should be used alongside other principles to give the best account of what should be considered scientific

3) Examples of ‘good’ science that aren’t falsifiable
- eg newtonian mechanics and string theory

4) Theories aren’t tested in isolation
- all theories contain preconceived beliefs and ideas due to culture, so cannot be tested in isolation

Question 9

What does ‘scientific thinking’ include?

Answer 9

EPISTEMIC VIRTUES
- objectivity/ open mindedness
-scepticism
- systematic/ thoroughness
- transparency/ honesty

(ostriches sing soft tunes)

Question 10

A theory

Answer 10

a proposed explanation, derived from observation

Question 11

methodological triangulation

Answer 11

the use of multiple methods to address the same issue

Question 12

Qualitative vs Quantitative Data
(def, aim and sample size)

Answer 12

Qual -> descriptive, non-numerical data aim-> seeks rich, subjective data (eg individual’s thoughts and feelings;)
sample size-> small (idiographic)

Quan -> numerical data
aim-> seeks numerical, objective data on the relationship between variables
sample size -> large to generalise findings to general population (nomothetic)

Question 13

Qual/Quan data and which is Idiographic/Nomothetic? + why

Answer 13

Qualitative data -> Idiographic
= Seeks to understand the uniqueness of individuals through in-depth, subjective/qualitative research.
Quantitative data -> nomothetic
=Seeks to generalise findings from sample to general population through objective, numerical /quantitative methods.

Question 14

Idiographic vs nomothetic

Answer 14

1) Idiographic: research that focuses more on individuals as a means to studying behaviour.
- Behaviour is best understood in terms of subjective experience, what it means to the individual (phenomenology)

Methods: Case studies, thematic analysis, unstructured interviews/questionnaires (open questions) or unstructured observations.

Data: Qualitative non-numerical descriptive, e.g. thoughts and feelings. Only the individual can explain what a behaviour means, a detached observer’s explanation is meaningless.

= Behaviour is unique and cannot be generalised or compared to others norms.
research methodology that emphasizes the uniqueness of individuals

2) Nomothetic: Research that studies as many people as possible to ensure findings can be generalised.
- Behaviour is best understood by looking at it objectively, through standardised replicable research.

Methods:
Experiments, structured questionnaires (closed questions) or controlled observations.

Data:
Quantitative - it is SCIENTIFIC

= Can be generalised which provides a ‘benchmark’ or norm against which people can be compared, classified or measured. This means behaviour should be able to be predicted and controlled.

Question 15

Theoretical transferability

Answer 15

The extent to which a studies findings can be transferred to another context.

Question 16

Reflexivity

Answer 16

Critically reflecting on one’s own characteristics, assumptions and experiences and how this may influence the research process and interpretation of data.

Question 17

QUAL/QUAN DATA :
open or closed questions?
+ what examples of qual/quan data in general

Answer 17

Qualitative data
-> open questions
- usually in the form of interviews, diary entries, observations etc

Quantitative data
-> closed questions
- usually in the form of scales, ratings, questionnaires or neuroimaging (EEGs)

Question 18

findings vs conclusions vs data

Answer 18

findings : outcomes of a study
conclusions: a summary of what the findings might mean in terms of overall theory.
data: relatively uninterpreted information; gathered facts

Question 19

peer review

Answer 19

Critical review by academics , who are experts in the field, of an article or submitted for publication.

Question 20

pilot study

Answer 20

A preliminary investigation designed to test the feasibility and design of a larger more comprehensive study. (small scale study before main study to test for critiques etc).

Question 21

Analysis

Answer 21

An investigation of data for patterns or evidence of an effect.